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Phonetics & Phonology I.-ťaháky (p&p_i._-_tahaky.doc)

Speech is a string of sounds which form a continuum.

When we listen to this speech continuum we notice

that some segments of it sound identical(more or less)

– they repeat in different places in the continuum

(e.g. nos, lano, on) These perceptible units of speech

are called speech sounds – allophones. We normally

use square brackets for it [n]

Phonemes

  1. some types of speech sounds can influence the

meaning of words. These groups of sounds are

called phonemes

  1. a phoneme is a set of speech sounds with the

same distinctive function in a given language

  1. it is the smallest contrastive unit which may

bring about = to cause a change a meaning

Phonetics

  1. is a branch of linguistics concerned with the

classification of speech sounds from the functional

point of view

  1. it studies the abstract side of sounds of language
  2. the basic unit is a phoneme

Transcription

  1. is a method of writing down speech sounds

in a systematic and consistent way

  1. on sound is represented by one symbol
  1. Phonemic Transcription – we use phonemes
  2. Allophonic Transcription – we use allophones

The organs which we use in communication are

called organs of articulation or articulators.

They can be divided into 4 main groups

- Respiratory organs, Phonatory apparatus,

Resonators = Reson.cavities, Modulating organs

 

 

 

Respiratory organs

The main source of energy form the production of

speech sounds comes form the lungs.

Depending on the way the air is released form the

lungs we distinguish between air stream mechanisms:

pulmolic – sound which are produced by the energy

of the lungs, use its energy

  1. egressive – the air is expelled form the lungs

                      – we breathe out

  1. ingressive         – the air is breathe in inside the lungs

– in Slovak language it is used for “híkanie”

non-pulmolic         – use some other source of energy

        – these are clicks sounds

Phonatory apparators

Within larynx, there are 2 thick flaps of muscles which

looks rather like a pair of lips.

They can be brought together or parted through

muscular tension. This organ is called the vocal folds.

The opening between the vocal folds is the glottis.

The glottis can assume different positions of openness.

There are 4 recognizable states:

  1. wide apart – the glottis is fully open

– production of voiceless consonants

  1. loosely together – slightly open

– production of glottal fricatives

  1. loosely together and vibrating –air causes vibration
  2. – voiced sounds (consonants and vowels)
  3. tightly closed – no air comes out or in

– when we produce the glottal stop

(what would you do, not here – zastavenie zvuku)

The process of passing the air stream through the vocal

chords resulting in audible vibration is called

voicing = phonation

 

 

Resonators

  1. Oral cavity
  2. Nasal cavity
  3. Pharyngeal cavity

The air stream coming from the lungs and passing

through the pharynx can leave in one of these three ways:

  1. The soft palate may be slightly lowered. The air comes

out booth through the oral and nasal cavity. In this case

we produce nasalized sounds (e.g. in French)

  1. The soft palate s lowered and the oral cavity is blocked

so the air escapes through the nasal cavity. This is where

we produce nasal sounds m, n

  1. The soft palate is raised and blocks the nasal cavity.

This is how we produce oral sounds g, f, a, b

Modulating organs

  1. Teeth – produced dental sounds / ð, θ /
  2. Alveoral ridge – alveoral sounds /s, z, t, d, r, l /
  3. Hard palate – we produce palatal sounds / j /
  4. Tongue – lingual sounds (apical, lamina, dorsal)
  5. Mandible – mandible sounds
  6. Lips – labial, bilabial or labial-dental sounds / p, b, m /
  7. Soft palate = velum – veral sounds / k, ch, n /
  8. Uvula – uvular sounds (ráčkovanie)

 

 

Acoustic properties of sounds

Every sound can be examined form the point

of view of these 4 acoustic properties:

Frequency, Intensity, Quality (wave structure)

Quantity

Frequency

  1. is a technical term and it refers to the number

of completed repetitions (cycles) of variations in

air pressure occurring in the second

  1. it is the number of cycles that occur in 1 second
  2. the shorter the cycles, the higher the frequency
  3. the unit of frequency is the HERTZ (Hz)
  4. the human ear is capable of hearing the sounds

ranging from 20 – 20 000 Hz

  1. a male voice may have an average pitch lever

of about 120 Hz

 

 

Intensity

  1. is the amount of energy which is carried by a

sound wave - is usually measured in DECIBELS

  1. relates to amplitude of vibration
  2. the bigger the amplitude, the higher the intensity

Quality

  1. it is the wave structure
  2. is that attribute of auditory sensation in terms

of which a listener can judge that two sounds

similarly presented and having the same loudness

and pitch are dissimilar

  1. when vocal folds vibrate, they produce vibratory

motion – the result is a glottal tone

  1. the glottal tone is a complex waveform

= a waveform composed of several sine waves

Quantity

the duration of the vibration of a particular sound

there are 2 categories of lengths:

absolute phonetic duration

– which is measurable property milliseconds

functional phonological length

  1. which can bring about a change in a meaning of a word

Acoustic aspects of speech

Sound waves

  1. the air around us consists of numerous tiny

particles which are in constant random movement

  1. these randomly moving particles create certain

air pressure

  1. when the vocal folds start vibrating, they cause

fluctuations of the air pressure – the air is

alternately squashed and expanded

  1. these fluctuations spread in all directions like

ripples on a pond, and they usually become smaller

as the distance form the source increases

  1. the wave created by compressing and expending

of the air carrying sound is called a SOUND WAVE

  1. when the air comes out of the oral cavity

,the vibration we hear can be of 2 types:

  1. Regular (periodic) vibration
  2. Irregular (aperiodic) vibration

Regular (periodic) vibration

  1. is produced by the vocal folds providing that

they are vibrating at the constant frequency and

with constant intensity

  1. such periodic vibration manifests itself as

a period wave

  1. perisodic waves consists of certain wave

patterns that periodically (at equal intervals)

repeat themselves

  1. these waves can be of 2 types:
  1. simple periodic waves

- are relatively rare and they can be shown

as simple sine waves (sinusovky)  

  1. complex periodic waves

– is a wave in which several simple sine waves

are combined into one single wave

– sounds produced by the vocal folds are usually

complex periodic waves

 

Irregular (aperiodic) vibration

  1. manifests itself as an aperiodic or random ware
  2. they do not show a regular periodic pattern
  3. they are composed of a large number of sine wave

of different frequency and intensity, there is no repetition

of any pattern, no regularity

  1. all voiceless fricatives, voiceless affricates

and plosives are aperiodic waves  

All sound in speech consists of complex periodic

and low aperiodic waves

SOUND CATEGORIES

VOWELS + SONORANTS / m, n, l, r, ŋ /

– are produced by regular vibration

– we can call them TONES

VOICED OBSTRUENTS / b, d, ʤ, z /

– are produced by both regular and irregular vibration

– we can call them TONES + NOISES

VOICELESS OBSTRUENTS / p, t, s, ʧ /

– are produced by irregular vibration

– we can call them NOISES

 

 

 

 

VOWELS

Phonetic- A vowel is a sound I the production

which there is no obstruction to the flow of air

as it passes form the larynx to the lisp

Phonological - Vowels form sentence of syllables

Vowels can be divided into:

  1. Pure vowels = monophthongs
  2. Gliding vowels = diphthongs

Vowels can be shown graphically on a VD

The VD indicates the position of the

highest point of the tongue.

A description of vowels according to:

  1. the length of the vocal chord vibration

Phonology – short + long

Phonetics –  very short, short, half long, long

  1. the position of the soft palate

Raised – where we produce oral vowels

Lovered – the sound might came out through

oral cavity or nasal cavity (oral or nasalized vowels)

  1. the shape of the lips

Rounded, Spred, Neutral

  1. the horizontal movement of the tongue

Front, Cnetral, Back

  1. the vertical movement of the tongue

(different degrees of openness)

Close, , Close – mid, Open – mid, Open

  1. the muscular tension of the tongue

Lax vowels     / ɪ /        / ʊ /    

Tense vowels     / i: /       / u:/    

Phonological length

Phonological English vowels are short and long

There are minimal pairs:

sit – seat / cut – cart / full  fool / don – dawn

Phonetical length

Phonetically the length of English vowels

depends on the type of the following sounds:

  1. voiceless consonants decrease the length

of short and long vowels (sot=short, sort=long)

  1. voiced consonants do not influence the

length of short and long vowels

The total duration of the short vowels and a voiced

consonant equals the total duration of the short

vowel and the voiceless consonant.

The same applies to long vowels.

 

 

DIPHTHONGS

Phonetically  - A diphthong is a complex speech

sound beginning one vowel sound and moving to

another vowel position within the same syllable.

Phonologically - Diphthongs are those units which

form sentence of syllables.

According to the type of sounds they consist of

– diphthongs can be divided into:

1. CLOSING

- ending with / ɪ /      -     / eɪ /     / aɪ /      / ɔɪ /      

- ending with / ʊ /     -   / aʊ /     / əʊ /    

2. CENTRING

– ending with / ə /     -   / ɪə /      / eə /     / ʊə /    

The length and prominence of English D.

  1. when the first part of the D. is longer and more

prominent, the D. is said to be falling

  1. when the second part of the D. is longer and more

prominent, the D. is said to be raising

  1. when stressed, all English D. are falling
  2. in an unstressed position / ɪə /    and   / ʊə /  

are rising, and the rest of English D. are falling

 

 

CONSONANTS

Phonetically - A C. is a speech sound produced

by a partial of complete obstruction of the air stream

by any ot the various speech organs

Phonologically  C. are those segments which occur

ate the edges of syllables

Consonants can be described according to:

  1. the source of the energy
  1. from the lungs – pulmonic
  2. not from the lungs – non-pulmonic (clicks)
  1. the direction of the air stream
  1. out of the lungs – egressive
  2. breathing the air in – ingressive
  1. the vocal folds activity
  1. active – voiced
  2. not active – voiceless
  1. the position of the soft palate
  1. lowed – nasal C. (m, n, ň)
  2. raised – oral C. (all others)
  1. the place of articulation
  1. the lips are used – bilabial sounds (b, m)
  2. the lips and teeth are used

– labiodental sound (v, f, ɱ)

  1. dental sounds [θ]
  2. the tongue touches the alveolar ridge

– alveolar (e, d, z, s)

  1. the tip of the tongue is curled backwards

– post-alveolar sound / r /, [ ɹ ]

  1. palato-alveolar / ʧ, ʃ, ӡ, ʤ /
  2. palatal sounds / j /
  3. the back of the tongue touches the soft palate

– velar sounds / k, g, ch, ŋ /    

  1. glottal consonants

– voiced and voiceless /h/, voiceless /j/

  1. the manner of the articulation
  1. occlusives

– produced with a complete occlusion /m, t, d /

  1. semi-occlusives

– formed first by a occlusion + constriction [ ʧ ]   [ts]

  1. constructives [s, z, š, ž, f, v, h]

– formed with a narrowing with a friction (šum)  

  1. approximants [ j ]  [ w ]  [ ɹ ]

– also formed with a narrowing but without a friction

  1. the articulating organ

– depending on the active articulating organ used

we distinguish these cassis of C.:

  1. labial (bilabial, labio-dental)
  2. glottal
  3. lingual
  1. apical (len konček jazyka)
  2. laminal (tvorené čepeľou)
  3. pre-dorsal (predná časť – ť, ď, ň, j)
  4. post-dorsal (zadná časť – k, g, h, ch)
  5. radical (koreňové – abrabské, hebrejské)
  1. the auditory impression

– according to the presence or absence of a noise component

obstruents – noise (+tone) consonants

  1. plosives /ď, ť, ň /
  2. fricatives (šum)
  3. affricates (and their combinations – č, ž, c, dz)

sonorants / resonants – these are tone C.

– only composed of tones but no noises

  1. oral / j, w, r, ɹ /
  2. nasal / n, m, ň /
  1. the muscular effort

fortis – are articulate with strong muscular effort = voiceless C.

lenis – are articulate with a lithe muscular effort = voiced C.

  1. length

long and short C.

continuants (mmm, sss) and non-continuants (t)

 

 

SYLLABLE, SYLLABIC CONSONANTS

Syllables

- Syllables can be defined as units of spoken

language consisting of a single uninterrupted

sound formed by a vowel (Mono, dip, trip) of a

syllabic consonant, or of either with one or

more consonants

- It is a unit containing on main peak of sonority

Syllabic consonants

- a SC is a consonant functioning as the syllabus

nucleus (ako jadro slabiky)

- can be found mainly in unstressed syllables of roots

- they occur after another consonant and usually

depend on the type of this preceding consonant

- the main problem which arises here, and which

applies to all SC, is the realisation of the sequence

containing the SC

There are 2 possibilities and graphically they

could be expressed like this:

  1. /c + ə + c/ - there is no SC /´mΛtən/
  2. /c + SC/ - šva von, vzniká slabikotv. „n“  /´mΛtn/

L – Syllabic /l/

- in connected rapid speech, the sequence

/consonant + syllabic l/ is always preferred to

the sequence /c + ə +l/

- always use syllabic /l/ - /´kΛpl/

N – Syllabic /n/

- if the ending sequence of polysyllabic words

begins with any consonant except /l, m, n, nt, nd/, the            

sequence /c + syllabic n/ is preferred - /´mΛtn/

- if the ending sequence of polysyllabic words begins

with any of the consonants /l, m, n, nt, nd/, the sequence

/c + ə + n/ is used - /´sΛlən/

M – Syllabic /m/

- if the ending sequence of polysyllabic words begins

with any of the following consonants / θ, ʃ, ð, s, z /, the

sequence pattern /c + syllabic m/ is preferred - /´ænθm/

- if the ending sequence of polysyllabic words beginns

with a consonant other than / θ, ʃ, ð, s, z /,

the sequence pattern / c + ə + m /is used - /´ælbəm/

- if a word ends in the sequence /pən/, /pņ/, /bən/, /bņ/

- this sequence can, as a result of simultaneous elision

and assimilation change onto /pm/ or /bm/

- happen = /´hæpən/ - very slow articulation,

/´hæpņ/ - normal speech, /´hæpm/ - fast, informal speech

Ŋ – Syllabic /ŋ/

- this SC occurs in English only as a result of simultaneous

elision  and assimilation

- if a word ends in a sequence /kən/, /kņ/, /gən/, /gņ/

this sequence can change into /kŋ/ or /gŋ/

- thicken = /´θɪkən/ - slow, /´θɪkņ/ - normal, /´θɪkŋ/ - fast

 

 

PRONUNCIATION OF SUFFIXES

INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES

→are morphemes which express certain

grammatical relationships such as

- the plural

- the present participle

- the past tense

- the third person singular present tense

- the possessive case

→ STEM – is that part of the word form which

remains when all inflectional affixes have

been removed

– chars – stem + inflectional S.

– wheel chairs – stem + inflectional S., 2 roots

→ SOUNDS – the pronunciation of inflectional

S. in English follows certain rules:

1.) I.S.  -ed

  1. added to regular verbs to form the past tense
  2. the pronunciation of this S. follows these rules:
  1. if the stem ends in /t/ or /d/

- we add /id/ in pronunciation /bli:t/ → /bli:t ɪd/

  1. if the stem ends in a vowel

– we add /d/ in pronunciation  /fri:/ → /fri:d/

  1. if the stem ends in a voiceless C. except  /t/

- we add /t/ in pronunciation /lɪk/ →  /lɪkt/

→ when at the end there is a voiced C the suffix

must be voiced as well – except /t/ and /d/

2.) I.S.   –s  &   -´s

-  the S.  –s  is found in regular plural and the third

person singular in present tense where as the S.  -´s  

forms the possessive case or the so called   -S Genitive

-      the pronunciation of the suffixes follows these rules:

  1. if the stem ends in a sibilant (sykavka) /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ /

- we add /-iz/ in pronunciation  /pleɪs/ → /pleɪsɪz/

  1. if the stem ends in a vowel or any non-sibilant voiced C

– we add /z/ in pronunciation  /fləʊ/ →  /fləʊz/

  1. if the stem ends in any non-sibilant voiceless C

– we add /s/ in pronunciation  /kɒf/ → / kɒfs/

- with regular plurals and some word ending /s/ or /z/,

the Genitive is expressed by apostrophe only.

In such cases the pronunciation follows these rules:

  1. fixed expressions with “for … sake” are pronounced

with zero suffix  /fə,gʊdnəs´seɪk/

  1. regular plurals in the Genitive are pronounced

with zero suffix  /bɒɪz/

  1. Greek names of more than one syllable in Genitive

are pronounced with zero suffix  /´sɒkrəti:z/

  1. some names ending in the voiced sibilant

/z/ take /iz/ in the Genitive   /´dɪkɪnzɪs/

3.) Suffix  -ing  

-         the suffix   -ing  is both an inflectional suffix and

a derivational suffix

-         this suffix is added to English verbs to create continuous

forms of verbs, verbal nouns, or adjectives

-         the pronunciation of this suffix follows these rules:  

a) if the stem ends in a consonant, or any of the vowels

/i:, u:, ɔ:/ or diphthongs other than / ɪə , eə ,ʊə /

- we add / ɪŋ /

b) if the stem ends in any of the following

/ ɑ:, ɔ:, ɜ:, ə, ɪə, eə, ʊə/ - we add /rɪŋ/

DERIVATIONAL SUFFIXES

→ are morphemes which usually change the

word class of the roots they are attached to

→ by adding a derivational suffix to a root,

we create a new lexical word (lexem)

love → lovely / do → redo / hope → hopeful

→ pronunciation of the most problematic

derivational suffixes:

  1. -able /əbl/ - /breɪk/ →  /´breɪkəbl/
  2. -age /ɪʤ/ - /breɪk/  →  /´breɪkɪʤ/
  3. -en /n/ - /lu:s/ →  /´lu:sn/    

      /ən/     /fɔ:l/ →  /fɔ:lən/

  1. -ful /fl/ - if it is an adj. - /feɪθ/  →  /´feɪθfl/

    /fʊl/ - if it is a noun - /fu:m/ →  /´ru:mfʊl/

  1. -less /ləs/ - /help/  →  /´helpləs/
  2. -ment /mənt/ - /peɪ/  →  /´peɪmənt/
  3. -ness /nəs/ - /´ləʊnlɪ/  →  /´ləʊnlɪnəs /  

 

 

LINKING

→ is a process of joining 2 words together

by a means of a linking sound

→ depending on the type of vowels involved,

we insert one of these 3 linking sound - /r/, /j/, /w/

Link /r/

- when a rod ends with any of the vowels /a: ɔ: ɜ: e/

or diphthongs / ɪə eə ʊə/, and the last or penultimate

letter of the word is the letter “r” (except for “-ra”)

the linking-r is inserted between this word and

following word if the following word begins with

a vowel - /fa: r ə´weɪ/

- when a word ends with any of these vowels

/a: ɔ: e ɪə/ and the las or penultimate letter is not

the letter “r” (except for “-ra”)  - the intrusive-r is

inserted between these word and the following

word, if the following word begins with a vowel

- /´rΛʃər an(d) ´ʧaɪnə/

Link /w/

- when a word ends with the vowel /u:/ or any of

these diphthongs /əʊ/, /aʊ/ - a slight /w/-link is

inserted between these word and the following

word, if the following word begins with a vowel

- /tu: w ´aɪz/

Link /j/

- when the word ends in any of the vowels / ɪ / , /i:/

or any of the diphthong / eɪ aɪ ɔɪ / a slight /k/-link is

inserted between this word and the following word

if the following word begins with a vowel - /,prɪtɪ j ´aɪz/

 

ELISION WITHIN THE WORD

→ it is the emission of sounds

→ it occurs under the influence of increased

tempo, the sound’s quality, it’s position in the

word, the quality of the neighbouring sounds

and the speakers style

Elision of vowels

  1. if the penultimate syllable of simple and

derived sounds contains / ɪ / , / ə / and it is

created by syllable with the primary stress,

the / ɪ / , / ə / tend to be elided - /´pɒs(ɪə)bl/

  1. if a pre-penultimate syllable of simple and

derived words contains / ɪ / , / ə / and it is

preceded by a syllable with the primary stress,

the / ɪ / , / ə / tend to be elided - /´dɪf(ɪ)kltɪ/

  1. words ending in / ʊərɪ/ have a tendency to

drop either / ʊ /, / ə / or / ʊə / in rapid connected

speech  /´ʤænj(ʊə)rɪ/

  1. the initial sequences /c+ə+l/ and /c+ə+n/

tend to drop the vowel /ə/ in rapid speech, and

the primary stress is moved to the beginning

of the word - /k(ə/´lɪʒn/ → / ´klɪʒn/

  1. the word initial sequence / c+ə+c / tends to

drop the vowel /ə/ in rapid speech and the primary

stress in moved to the beginning of the word

- /sə´phɔ:tə/ → /´sphɔ:tə /

  1. other V.elisions /pə´hæps/ → /phæps/ → /præps/

Elision of consonants

  1. the word initial sequence / ɔ:(l) + c/ tends to

drop the consonants /l/ in rapid speech

- / ɔ:(l)´redɪ/ →/ ɔ:(l)´raɪt/

  1. word-medial, word-final consonants clusters

/nt+c/, /nd+c/, /st+c/, /fx+c/ tend to drop the

C. /t/, /d/, in connected speech - /kaʊn(t)daʊn/

  1. word-final consonant clusters (ingeneral)

tend to be reduced in rapid connected speech:

/ θs/ → /s/, / ðz/ → /z/, /kts/ → /ks/, /pts/ → /ps/

/ktl/ → /kl/, /skt/ → /st/ , /mps/ → /ms/

/mpt/ → /mt/ , /ksθ/ → /ks/ , /lfθ/ → /lθ/

Elision of combinations of V. and C.

- the word-final sequences /rərɪ/, /ərərɪ/ tend

to be reduced to /rɪ/ - /´laɪb(rə)rɪ/

 

 

 

 

SENTENCE STRESS

  1. is a relative force given to the different word

in  a sentence

  1. the placement of stress within the sentence

depends on the relative importance of the words

in that sentence

  1. the more important a word is, the stronger is

it’s stress

  1. the most important words are usually

CONTENT WOREDS (plnovýznamové) – lexical

  1. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs – the sentence

stress is usually placed on these words

  1. we distinguish between
  1. primary sentence stress

falls on the content words which carry most importance

  1. secondary sentence stress

– usually falls on content words of less importance

- words carrying neither P or S stress are considered

to be UNSTRESSED – mainly function words

Rules to placement P and S stress within a sentence,

as well as some exceptions to the basic principle

of sentence stress:

  1. when we feel the need to emphasize a function word

for the purpose of contrast, we give the word the P stress

  1. if we use a word which has already been used in the

sentence, or in the previous sentence, this word takes

secondary stress or no stress at all

  1. “WH”-word standing at the beginning of a question

carry primary or secondary stress

  1. the exclamatory “WHAT” standing at the beginning

of a sentence is not stressed

  1. auxiliary verbs in the negative usually carry P stress
  2. auxiliary verbs in question tag (…isn’t it?...) always

carry primary stress

  1. monosyllabic prepositions at the beginning of

a sentence may carry primary or secondary stress

  1. when a noun is preceded by a word which defines

or describes the noun more closely, the noun takes the

P stress and the preceding word usually takes the S stress

  1. when an intensifier such as “ABSOLUTELY” ,

“HORRIBLY”, “COMPLETELY” precedes an other word,

both words usually take the primary stress

10)in phrasal verbs, the verbal element usually takes the

S stress and the adverbial element usually takes the P stress

11)in casual conversational style, the number of unstressed

syllables and syllables with secondary stress tends to exceed

the number of the syllables with the primary stress

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

STRONG AND WEAK FORMS

In the English the function words

– prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, pronouns,

auxiliary verbs and some adverbs – are usually

pronounced in their weak form.

During the change of function words form its

strong form to its weak form, any of the

following 3 phenomena can take place:

  1. Reduction of length – two = /tu:/ → /t(:)/
  2. Obscuration of vowels – clean vowels

change into less clean vowels – at = /æt/ → /ət/

  1. Elision of sounds – him = /hɪm/ → /(h)ɪm/

Some function words are often reduced,

but there are some exceptions:

SOME

  1. when the word “some” functions as a

determiner, it is usually reduced to /s(ə)m/

→ it may usually omitted without destroying the

structure of the sentence

  1. when the word “some” functions as a pronoun,

it occurs in its strong form /sΛm/ → the omission

of this type of the word „some“ changes the

meaning or destroys the structure of the sentence

  1. when the word “some” stands at the end of

the sentence, it is always in its strong form

THAT

  1. when the word “that” function as demonstrative

pronoun or adverb, strong form is used /ðæt/

  1. if it functions as a relative pronoun or

a conjunction, the weak form is used /ðət/

OTHERS

  1. most function words standing in the final position

in the sentence tend to keep the strong form, even

through they are not necessarily stressed

  1. function words – her, him, he, them, us – can have

a weak form even when standing in the final position

in the sentence

  1. function words – be, do, me, she, to ,who, you

– retain their strong form at the end of the sentence,

but their length may be reduce

  1. when a function word is given stress for the purpose

of emphasise, the strong form is used

PONOUNS, PREPOSITIONS

- when we contrast or compare two or more pronouns

or tow or more prepositions, these pronouns and

preposition retain their strong form

AUXILIARY VERBS

- auxiliary verb SHALL or WILL retain their strong form,

when standing at the beginning of the sentence

- the rest of the AV may retain their strong form at the

beginning of the sentence, although the weak form

is more common

CITATION, QUOTATION

- when a function word is being cited or quoted,

the strong form is used

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

VOWELS

Phonetic- A vowel is a sound I the production

which there is no obstruction to the flow of air

as it passes form the larynx to the lisp

Phonological - Vowels form sentence of syllables

Vowels can be divided into:

  1. Pure vowels = monophthongs
  2. Gliding vowels = diphthongs

Vowels can be shown graphically on a VD

The VD indicates the position of the

highest point of the tongue.

DIPHTHONGS

Phonetically  - A diphthong is a complex speech

sound beginning one vowel sound and moving to

another vowel position within the same syllable.

Phonologically - Diphthongs are those units which

form sentence of syllables.

CONSONANTS

Phonetically - A C. is a speech sound produced

by a partial of complete obstruction of the air stream

by any ot the various speech organs

Phonologically  C. are those segments which occur

ate the edges of syllables

SYLLABLE

- Syllables can be defined as units of spoken

language consisting of a single uninterrupted

sound formed by a vowel (Mono, dip, trip) of a

syllabic consonant, or of either with one or

more consonants

- It is a unit containing on main peak of sonority

SYLLABIC CONSONANTS

- a SC is a consonant functioning as the syllabus

nucleus (ako jadro slabiky)

- can be found mainly in unstressed syllables of roots

- they occur after another consonant and usually

depend on the type of this preceding consonant

- the main problem which arises here, and which

applies to all SC, is the realisation of the sequence

containing the SC

INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES

→are morphemes which express certain

grammatical relationships such as

- the plural

- the present participle

- the past tense

- the third person singular present tense

- the possessive case

DERIVATIONAL SUFFIXES

→ are morphemes which usually change the

word class of the roots they are attached to

→ by adding a derivational suffix to a root,

we create a new lexical word (lexem)

love → lovely / do → redo / hope → hopeful

LINKING

→ is a process of joining 2 words together

by a means of a linking sound

→ depending on the type of vowels involved,

we insert one of these 3 linking sound - /r/, /j/, /w/

ELISION WITHIN THE WORD

→ it is the emission of sounds

→ it occurs under the influence of increased

tempo, the sound’s quality, it’s position in the

word, the quality of the neighbouring sounds

and the speakers style

SENTENCE STRESS

  1. is a relative force given to the different word

in  a sentence

  1. the placement of stress within the sentence

depends on the relative importance of the words

in that sentence

  1. the more important a word is, the stronger is

it’s stress

  1. the most important words are usually

CONTENT WOREDS (plnovýznamové) – lexical

  1. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs – the sentence

stress is usually placed on these words

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Phonetics

  1. is a branch of linguistics concerned with the

classification of speech sounds from the functional

point of view

  1. it studies the abstract side of sounds of language
  2. the basic unit is a phoneme

Transcription

  1. is a method of writing down speech sounds

in a systematic and consistent way

  1. on sound is represented by one symbol
  1. Phonemic Transcription – we use phonemes
  2. Allophonic Transcription – we use allophones

Phonology

- is a branch of L. concerned with the classification

of speech sounds from the functional point of view

- it studies the abstract side of sounds of language

- i tis the description of the systems and patterns

of sounds that occur in a language

- 2 branches – SP (analyses phonemes) + SSP

(analyses functional segments higher than phonemes)

- the smallest unit is the phoneme

Acoustic properties of sounds

Every sound can be examined form the point

of view of these 4 acoustic properties:

Frequency, Intensity, Quality (wave structure)

Quantity

Speech is a string of sounds which form a continuum.

When we listen to this speech continuum we notice

that some segments of it sound identical(more or less)

– they repeat in different places in the continuum

(e.g. nos, lano, on) These perceptible units of speech

are called speech sounds – allophones. We normally

use square brackets for it [n]

VOWELS

Phonetic- A vowel is a sound I the production

which there is no obstruction to the flow of air

as it passes form the larynx to the lisp

Phonological - Vowels form sentence of syllables

Vowels can be divided into:

  1. Pure vowels = monophthongs
  2. Gliding vowels = diphthongs

Vowels can be shown graphically on a VD

The VD indicates the position of the

highest point of the tongue.

CONSONANTS

Phonetically - A C. is a speech sound produced

by a partial of complete obstruction of the air stream

by any ot the various speech organs

Phonologically  C. are those segments which occur

ate the edges of syllables

the manner of the articulation

  1. occlusives

– produced with a complete occlusion /m, t, d /

  1. semi-occlusives

– formed first by a occlusion + constriction [ ʧ ]   [ts]

  1. constructives [s, z, š, ž, f, v, h]

– formed with a narrowing with a friction (šum)  

  1. approximants [ j ]  [ w ]  [ ɹ ]

– also formed with a narrowing but without a friction

the auditory impression

– according to the presence or absence of a noise component

obstruents – noise (+tone) consonants

  1. plosives /ď, ť, ň /
  2. fricatives (šum)
  3. affricates (and their combinations – č, ž, c, dz)

sonorants / resonants – these are tone C.

– only composed of tones but no noises

  1. oral / j, w, r, ɹ /
  2. nasal / n, m, ň /

Consonants can be described according to:

  1. the source of the energy
  2. the direction of the air stream
  3. the vocal folds activity
  4. the position of the soft palate
  5. the place of articulation
  6. the manner of the articulation
  7. the articulating organ
  8. the auditory impression
  9. the muscular effort
  10. length

LINKING

→ is a process of joining 2 words together

by a means of a linking sound

→ depending on the type of vowels involved,

we insert one of these 3 linking sound - /r/, /j/, /w/

ELISION WITHIN THE WORD

→ it is the emission of sounds

→ it occurs under the influence of increased

tempo, the sound’s quality, it’s position in the

word, the quality of the neighbouring sounds

and the speakers style

SENTENCE STRESS

  1. is a relative force given to the different word

in  a sentence

  1. the placement of stress within the sentence

depends on the relative importance of the words

in that sentence

  1. the more important a word is, the stronger is

it’s stress

  1. the most important words are usually

CONTENT WOREDS (plnovýznamové) – lexical

  1. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs – the sentence

stress is usually placed on these words

  1. we distinguish between
  1. primary sentence stress

falls on the content words which carry most importance

  1. secondary sentence stress

– usually falls on content words of less importance

- words carrying neither P or S stress are considered

to be UNSTRESSED – mainly function words