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Morfológia II. - ťaháky (tahaky-zavercny_test.doc)

VERB PHRASE

VERB  = clause element = predicate = prísudok

           = word class

1.)full verbs (main, lexical, ordinary) – plnovýznamové

2.)primary (auxiliary) verbs – be, have, do

3.)modal auxiliary verbs – can, will, might

- semi AV – be able to, be suppose to, ...

- marginal AV – used to, need, dare, ought to

- modal idioms – had better, would rather, be to

4.)phrasal verbs – multiword verbs

VERBS AS A WORD CLASS

MORPHOLOGICAL FORM

- the structure

- it is about inflection

- regular verbs normally takes 4 morphological forms,

but some take 3 (cut) and more

- just the verb “to be” takes 8 MF

1.base form / 2. –s form

3.–ing participle – 2 functions(Gerund+Actvie participle)

but 1 form 4.–ed form (Past tense+Past/passive participle)

VERBS

1.finite verbs (neurčité),

we can identificate basic grammatical categories

a)–s form (he works) b) past form (past tense)

c)base -present (I go to school)

-imperative (Go home!)

-present subjunctive (we will talk about later)

2.non-finite verbs (určité)

we can’t identificate basic grammatical categories

a)–ing participle (speaking) b)ed participle (done)

c)infinitive - to infinitive + bare infinitive (without to)

SEMANTIC FUNCTION

semantic function depends on the context

verbs depend on the meaning, in which they are used

1.STATIVE VERBS

they can’t be used in continuous form

normally not used in progressive

1. verbs of the mind

(forget, believe, understand, know, think, remember)

2. verbs of emotion and feelings

(like, hate, prefer, care, want)

3. verbs of the five senses

(see, taste, hear, smell, feel, touch)

– normally take the can/can’t form

4. verbs of possession

(to have, to belong, to won, to possess)

5. some other verbs

(need, depend, cost, remain, contain, seem)

6. momentary verbs (jump, hit, kick, tap)

– without duration, it is just a moment

transitional verbs (stop, fall, die, leave, drown)

– change of the state, from one state to an other

2.DYNAMIC VERBS

Activity verbs / Process verbs

Some stative verbs but with different meaning

(to see – I´m seeing her / I see her)

SPELLING CHANGES

The –ing and –s forms are almost invariably predictable

from the base of both regular and irregular verbs.

The –ing inflection is merely added to the base  

( walk – walking  /push – pushing )

The -s inflection has three pronunciations:

1.)  /IZ/ after bases ending in voiced or voiceless

sibilants  – after sibilants š, ž, č, dž

In these cases the -s form always ends in -es

pass – passes              budge - budges

buzz – buzzes             push - pushes

catch – catches      camouflage – camouflages

watch – watches     fish – fishes

2.) /Z/ after bases ending in other voiced sounds

– after vowels, when y > i

call – calls        say – says                        

flee – flees        have – has

try – tries        do – does

play – plays         carry – carries

3.)  /S/ after bases ending in other voiceless sounds

– after p, t, k

cut – cuts        cook – cooks

hop – hops        take – takes

The -ed forms of regular verbs have three pronunciations:

1.)  /Id/ after bases ending in /d/ and /t/

pad – padded        tend – tended

pat – patted        rent – rented

2.)  /d/ after bases ending in voiced sounds other that /d/,

including vowels – after vowels

buzz – buzzed             play – played

call – called             wave – waved

budge – budged     love – loved

3.)  /t/ after bases ending in voiceless sounds other than /t/

– after voiced consonants

pass – passed            cook – cooked

pack – packed             watch – watched

fish – fished             ike – liked

Doubling of consonant before -ing and -ed

1.)A single consonant letter at the end of the base is double

before -ing and -ed when the preceding vowel is stressed

and spelled with a single letter

bar - ´barring – barred

oc´cur – oc´curring – oc´curred

2.)There is normally no doubling when the preceding vowel

is unstressed or is written with two letters

´enter - ´entering - ´entered        

dread – dreading – dreaded

´visit - ´visiting - ´visited

3.)British English breaks the rule by doubling after unstressed

syllables ending in -l, -m and -p, doubling is less usual in AE.

travel – travelling – travelled     British and AE  

travel – traveling – travelled      AE only

4.)In both British and American English the general rule is

broken by the doubling of -g in the word

humbug – humbugging - humbugged

and of words ending in c (spelled –ck)

panic – panicking – panicked

5.)In certain verbs whose base ends in a vowel followed by -s,

there is a variation between -s and -ss when the inflection is added

´bias – ´biasing / ´biassing – ´biased / ´biassed

Deletion of and addition of -e

1.)If the base ends in an unpronounced -e, this -e is regularly

dropped before the -ing and the -ed inflection

create – creating – created        bake – baking – baked         

2.)Verbs with monosyllabic bases in -ye, -oe and -nge

(pronounced /ndз), are exceptions to this rule – they do not lose

the -e before -ing, but they do lose it before -ed

dye – dyeing – dyed        hoe – hoeing – hoed

3.)The final –e is lost before –ed by verbs ending in –ie or –ee

tie – tied        die – died

4.)Before the -s ending an -e is added after the following

letters: s, z, ch, sh, x

pass – passes                 coax – coaxes         

watch – watches        buzz – buzzes        

wash – washes

Treatment of -y

In bases ending in a consonant followed by -y,

the following changes take place:

1.)     -y changes to -ie before -s                                

carry – carries              try – tries

2.)    -y changes to -i before -ed                                 

carry – carried             try – tried

3.)    -y remains where it follows a vowel letter                

stay – stayed              alloy – alloys

4.)    -y remains where it precedes -ing                        

carry – carrying      stay – staying

5.)     in verbs whose bases end in -ie, the -ie

changes to -y before -ing is added

die – dying        tie – tying        

lie – lying        vie – vying                        

VERBS ACCORDING TO THEIR FUNCTION IN A CLAUSE

SYNTACTIC FUNCTION

Verbs determine which other clause elements MUST be

in a sentence. According to this we have this types:

1. COPULAR VERBS

a) they link a subject complement Cs – if there is a Cs

there is always a copular verb

b) they link an Adverbial A

- most frequent is to be

- verbs of feeling – feel, look, smell, sound

- bodily sensation verbs

- the change of state – to became, to get, to turn

- other verbs – return, prove, stay

2. INTRANSITIVE VERBS

- the relation to an object in a sentence

- verbs that don’t take any object

it rains, it hurts, she is running, she is crying

- the meaning of a verb in a given sentence

speak – either intransitive (she is speaking)

or monotransive (she speaks English)

 it depends on the meaning

3. TRANSITIVE VERBS

- always followed by one or more objects

a)monotransitive verbs

- followed by 1 object direct – Oi can never ever

stand without Od => 2 objects

I read a book.                  I saw her.

I love/like/want her.        She drinks/eats.

b)ditransitive verbs

- are followed by 2 objects Oi + Od – always this

combination, always in this sequence

I gave him a book.          I sent him a letter.

c)complex transitive verbs

- there is an object but there must be something else, too

1. Object + Object complement   O + Co

I find English grammar easy.

I saw her naked.

1. Object + obligatory Adverbial   O + A

I gave the book to him. – it must be there

I gave something somewhere or to someone.

4. ERGATIVE VERBS

- it is a group of verbs that have the same meaning and

can be transitive or intransitive

- with the same meaning they can be either

intransitive or transitive

I opened the door – transitive

The door opened – intransitive

to shut      to close       to play

VERB PHRASES

- in English we have to think in phrases

- a verb phrase is a phrase consisting of one or more verbs

1. SIMPLE VERB PHRASE

- a VP consisting of 1 verb, 1 VP – 1 full verb

She  speaks  English.

2. COMPLEX VERB PHRASE

1. modal (M – modal + inf)
2. perfect (H – have + ed2)
3. progressive (Bpr – be + ing)
4. passive (Bpa – be + ed2) - ed2 = full verb

- they all can be combined

- this is also the order of combination

In 1 VP there is always just 1 full verb.

The building must have been being reconstructed.  

must have been = auxiliary verbs

reconstructed = just the last one is a full verb

VERB PHRASE

1. FINITE VP

they occur in independent clauses

the first verb is finite – the first verb is deciding

present x past – they show basic grammatical categories

the have mood – indicative, imperative, subjunctive

I  will have been - will = finite

2. NON-FINITE VP

the first verb is non-finite

-ing / -ed  / -to inf.  these are grammatical features

- opposite of finite features

Having done my homework I could go out.

having done = non-finite

contrast expressed in the verb phrase

- contrast = grammatical categories

1. TENSE        - present / - past
2. ASPECT - perfect present & past / - progressive = continuous
3. MOOD         - indicative / - imperative / - subjunctive
4. FINITENESS - finite / - non-finite
5. VOICE        - active / - passive

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS

pomocné slovesá

they help us to create various phrases

to be, to have, to do – they are both auxiliary or fully verbs

TO HAVE

auxiliary

– perfect phrases (I have done my homework)

– operator – words that create questions and negative forms

semiauxiliary verb – have (got) to

full verb – various meanings

1.) Possesion

a) false possession – I have a flu

b) logical relation – to have fun, to have a chance

c) fixed phrases – to have a cold

Do you have a brother? – American English

Have you got a brother? – British English common

Have you a brother? – Standard BE old fashioned

2.) Meanings of HAVE GOT – used only in present,

in past we use HAD

a) possession – I have got a brother

b) obligation – I have got to go home = Musím

c) have got in perfect – I have got a letter

d) question of understanding

Have you got it? = Chápeš? Rozumieš?

3.) “Action” have + Noun         

- HAVE = DYNAMIC – translated by 1 verb

to have a shower  /  to have lunch

4.) “Empty “ have (give, take, make,…)

to have a lecture – nominalization

native says – to give a lecture, to take a lecture  

5.) Phrases

a) have something done = dať si niečo spraviť

I have my breakfast prepared

b) have somebody do something

I have a waiter bring some coffee

I have my mother prepare breakfast for me

I have my students give examples

nejde o negatívne vyjadrenia

There are 3 confusing phrases:

1. to make somebody do something –prinútiť

You will be made to study – in passive

2. to have somebody do something

– mať niekoho na niečo

3. to get somebody to do something

– priviesť niekoho k niečomu

3 + 4 + 5 = MULTIWORD PHRASES

TO DO

auxiliary         

– operator        

1. interrogative (Do you have?)
2. negative (I don´t have)
3. negative imperative (Don´t go there!)

– emphatic                 

1. affirmative (I do like you)
2. imperative (Do go home!)

full verb         

– transitive meaning

do x make – produce, create, result of the process  

– phrases with gerund  (do the shopping, do the ironing)

– fixed phrases (do me a fovour, do the course)

PRO FORM         

– form used instead of something

Do you study? Yes, I do. – instead of study

I study English. I wouldn’t do that. – pro-form of study

TO BE

auxiliary         

– progress phrase

– passive

FULL VERB         

– linking verbs

– different meaning

– fixed phrases

semiauxiliary verbs

– to be to

MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS

central (can, may, must, will, shall)

marginal (need, dare, used to, ought to)

semi-auxiliaries (be able to, be about to, be bounded to)

modal idioms (had better, would rather, have got to, be to)

 CENTRAL AUXILIARIES

- CAN + could, would, might = past

- they have present, future and past meaning + their own meaning

I can do it today  /  I can do it tomorrow = future

You may go out today   /    you may go out tomorrow = future

I can go swimming now = present

We could have gone swimming when we wanted = past (môžem)

We could bring our friends for yesterday party = past (smiem)

 Periphrastic equivalents (opisné tvary)

- they describe the ability in an other way:

I could speak English when I was ten.

I was able to speak English when I was ten.

- they might either have the same meaning or a different meaning

- but there is usually limited meaning

- they are used when we want to combine 2 modal central auxiliaries

- 2 modal auxiliaries can’t be used in 1 phrase

 we must use 1 central modal auxiliary + 1 periphrastic equivalent

ALL GRAMMAR FEATURES OF MODAL AUXILIARIES

1. all take bare infinitive

1. either present infinitive (I could go)
2. or past infinitive (I could have gone / To have done something )

2. they take no inflection

- HE CAN – without (S), without (ED) and without (ING) endings

3. they function always as operators

- we create questions and negatives through them

4. they may have different meaning in negation

I like vs. I don´t like  it is the clear opposite meaning but not

with central modal auxiliaries

must  needn’t / don’t need to / may not / don’t have to / can’t / mustn’t

1. must pay   needn’t pay
2. you had to pay last year   you didn’t have to pay

   you needn’t have paid         

1. you must be here   you mustn’t smoke (prohibition, official)
2. it must be John   It can’t be John                 

THE DIFFERENCE

- must – inside, inner motivation (used in formal prohibitions)

- have to – external motivation (sometimes a weaker form)

- have got to

I must go home – because I want to study.

I have to go home – because my parents say so.

I have go home   vs.    I have ot to go home

They both have the same meaning, but the second

is used only in present and is informal, much more frequent in

colloquial language

5. they have different scope of negation

I may not go home         

 may not = you are not allowed to go home

 not go = smieš neísť domov

You may not ask me questions        

 may not = nesmieš sa ma pýtať otázky

 not as = nemusíš, ak nechceš

In real life it is clear form the context, we always know it.

6. in a verb phrase the modal auxiliary is always the first verb
7. there may be combined more verbs in 1 verb phrase

for example – perfect + continuous + past

8. they take different forms in various phrases
9. some nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs have similar meaning
10. they have very often different meanings

DEONTIC MEANING – very basic:         

can = to be able to

may = to be allowed to

must = to be obligated to

Somebody is smoking         

 It is John. (100% sure)

 It may (50%) / might (30%) be John.

 It can (30%) / could be John.

 It must be John. (80 – 90%)

 It will be John. (90 – 80%)

 It should be John.

DEONTIC

different, but just in the degree of possibility

EPISTEMIC MEANING

- different past tense

It must be  It must have been (mohol by to byť)

It might  I might have been

TIME, TENSE, ASPECT

TIME        

- not a grammatical category

- extra linguistic reality that must be expressed by gr. category

- present + future + past = philosophical category

- the speaker sets the limit what we mean by “now”

- it is subjective what is present, it is psychological subjective

Have you done …? – connected with present (present perfect)

Did you do…? – connected with past

TENSE        

- is also very subjective in English grammar

- the aspect depends on speaker

- JUST PRESENT + PAST

- linguistically we talk about present tense and past tense because

the tense is a term meaning 1 morphological form (words with suffixes)

used for expressing time

- for future there are no morphological forms

- there are various phrases to express the future morphological form

- practically the notion tense mean any grammatical verb phrase

ASPECT

- very subjective grammatical category, it is a psychological category

- it is a grammatical category that reflects the way in which the meaning

of a full verb is viewed with respect to time

- how I as a speaker view the meaning with respect to time

- it depends – it is subjective

Where do you live?  the answers can be all these:

1. I live in Bratislava – permanent
2. I’m living in Bratislava – temporary – how long – but it is personal
3. I have been living in Bratislava for 2 weeks now

– also temporary – I want to move somewhere

4. I have lived here since I was five – permanent – I want to stay

PERFECT ASPECT

– means finished / unfinished + complete / uncompleted

PROGRESSIVE / CONTINUOUS ASPECT

- has got some special meanings

we use it:    

1. when some activity is in progress right now (we are speaking)

2. it has some duration (we are having a lecture)

3. change of state (she is getting older)

4. temporariness (I’m living – not permanent)

5. annoyance (you are always coming late, he is always asking questions)

It is always connected with characteristic behaviour.

We can not say she always comes late if it is not annoying, irritating.

6. series of momentary facts, regular repetition of something (the child is jumping)

If we want to emphasize this regular repetition – wherever, whenever

I am drinking juice every morning – no matter if I am home or in a hotel.

PRESENT SIMPLE

USAGE:

1.)   present states (I love you)

2.)   habitual present (I get up at 6 a.m. every morning)

3.)   universal statement – time (The Sun rises in the east)

4.)   for past  narrative past – historically – use it much more frequently

(Yesterday I came home)

5.)   for future  

 after time expressions

(when you come home / as soon as / if) – conditional clauses

 calendar (diary) future

(the train leaves) – time conjunctions: when, before, after, as soon as, as long as

PRESENT CONTINUOUS / PROGRESSIVE

USAGE:

1. activity in progress right now (I am speaking)
2. activities that have some duration (we are having a lecture)
3. events around present (what are you reading now?)
4. characteristic behaviours, usually irritating (I am always losing my keys)
5. changing go the state (I am getting older)
6. for future arranged activity ( I am getting married in summer)
7. describing of the atmosphere – what’s going on (it is raining)
8. polite phrases (I am wondering, if you could do it for me)

PAST SIMPLE

USAGE:

1. definite time in the past (time adverbial), in context (I watched TV last night)
2. habitual past ( I got up at 6 o’clock when I studied / I used to …)
3. states in the past can’t be used continuously (I remembered it)
4. in backshift – reported speech (she said she was tired)
5. if clauses – 2nd conditional (if I knew that, I would tell you)

PAST CONTINUOUS

USAGE:

1. activity in progress in a moment in past

(at 5 o’clock I was watching TV)

(when he entered the classroom, she was explaining grammar)

2.) activity in progress within some time interval

(I was watching TV for 3 hours – from 1 to 3)

(Last night – all the night – I was watching TV)

1. two activities that were in progress simultaneously

(when I was speaking, my students were listening)

4.) events that are describing atmosphere in past

(the sun was shining)

5.) polite forms – but past is more polite than present and continuous is

more polite that present

(I wonder who could help me)

(I am wondering who could help me)

(I wondered who could help me)

(I was wondering who could help me)

PRESENT PERFECT

USAGE:

1. consequences of present event

describe the present result of previous activity

I have prepared lunch – tu je

I have explained grammar – teraz

2. talking about an experience

Have you been to Prague?

Have you ever met my brother?

3. as soon as there is a time adverbial meaning this moment

– recently, just now, this week, this year, up to now, this century

Have you had coffee this morning? (do 12:00)

4. unfinished states

I have known you for 2 years – hovoríme o stave

5. some fixed phrases

This is the 1st time I have met you.

PRESENT PERFECT Continuous

- activities, that started in the past an have been in process

till now / and was in progress till now

- usage of for, since (usually)

PAST PERFECT

- the activity that was in progress at some moment in the past

- reported speech (very frequently)

- usage of before (not necessarily), after

FUTURE

1.)  will

– general facts in the future

– prediction

– momentary

2.)  to be going        – intentions

– planning intentions  mienim, plánujem – mám umysel

3.)  present evidence that something will happen

(Look at the clouds, it is going to rain.)

4.)  present continuous

5.) transitional verbs with tense

(The bus is leaving.)

6.)  diary, time-table, callendar – very strong rule

(The meeting is on Monday.)

FUTURE continuous

I will be seeing you tomorrow ----- for sure, I promise

FUTURE PERFECT

we will have finished - by 8.30

“by” is important here

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

I will have being explaining grammar  

by the end of this session for 40 minutes.

“by” is important here

OTHER FUTURE PHRASES

1) This is near future   to be about to

Phrases:        

I´m just about to … if I want to emphasize

I´m on the point of explaining this to you…práve už teraz som to chcela urobiť

To be on the verge of ……už je to na spadnutie (už trochu dekoratívny jazyk)

2) to be to + to be due to ----------- both are frequent phrases in Slovak

Who else is to come? ---------- weaker, not his dutty

Who else is due to come? ---------- stronger, emphasizing a duty

Who else is due to come? …………. Kto má ešte prísť?

Who was to bring an overhead projector?

3) Last point of the future phases:

Some modal verbs have future meaning - just semantically, just in

the meaning - no gram.changes - CAN, MAY, TO BE LIKELY TO

4) All the 9 phrases can be used in passive

except 1) and past in indirect speech.

VOICE

- a new grammatical category

- can be active or passive

Generally about the usage of passive:

1. much more in English than in Slovak

- in Slovak we translate it in active - it doesn’t sound naturally, native like

- we tend to translate actively  interferences

2. in English active is much more frequent than passive
3. the usage of passive in English:

a) genre - in formal language , - technical materials

- legal letters , - official language

b) transitive verbs (that takes Object) can be use in passive form

(except transitive stative)

c) intransitive verbs can create 2 different passives:

I gave him a book  

 The book was given to him

 He was given a book

very frequent, but we don’t use them

in English the personal passive constructions are preferred

He was said   hovorí sa o ňom

He was told  bolo mu povedané

d) when the agent is not important, but the process is

the bridge was built

the car was stolen

e) when we want to emphasize the process

the hotel was built

f) when the object is obvious

he was imprisoned

GRAMMATICAL FEATURES

THEME & RHYME

Peter was given a book.

1.)Peter = T

was given a book = R  

it is about Peter, Peter is my friend                                             

2.) Peter = R

was given a book = T

it is about the book, the book is great

WHEN DO WE USE “GET”

- GET is used in fix phrases

- to get married / dressed / divorced

The prisoner was caught - chytili ho

The prisoner got caught - nechal sa chytiť

- usually implied a personal factor

He was married - it is a state

He got married - it is a process

He was examed - skúšali ho

He got examed - nechal sa vyskúšať

ANTICIPATORY IT

- “It” constructions with passive

It’s believed, claimed, suggested, supposed …..

It’s believed, that our students are very bright

(je verené, veríme, panuje všeobecný názor, že…)

STATIVE AND DYNAMIC MEANING

My car is reppared  state, stative passive  

“is reppared” is subject complement here

My car is reppared every month  dynamic passive

PREPOSITIONS

- go to the end of  the sentence

MOOD

1. Indicative
2. imperative
3. subjunctive (podmieňovací)

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT - “be”  (bear)

A) mandative        

- in “that” clauses

- adverbs: demand, insist, suggest

- especially in American English (+BE) and in formal style

- can be replaced (should, to-inf.)

I suggest he should not go home.

B) formative                

- in set expression (fixed phrases)

God save the Queen!

Come what may

Be that it may

Heaven forbid

So be (nech je)

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST - “were” (was)

1. meaning is hypothetical, unreal
2. in conditional and concessive clauses (prípustkové - hoci)
3. after: if (only), even if, as it, even though
4. after: wish, it’s time, I’d rather, suppose  

Suppose you understood the grammar, you can go home)

5. sometimes can be replaced by to-inf.

(It’s time for you to finish)

ADVERBS

– belong to an open part of class of speech

– belong to predication

Adverb – word class (príslovky)

Adverbial – clause element (príslovkové určenie)

 MORPHOLOGICAL FORMS

1. simple adverbs
2. compound adverbs

(moreover, furthermore, thereafter, nevertheless, SH, SW)

3. derivational adverbs = adverbs with suffixes

a) suffix   -ly            

- adjective + ly (happy / happily)

- adjective = adverb (lovely, friendly, weekly, kindly)

- adjective (+ly) = the same meaning

(first / firstly, loud / loudly, deep / deeply)

- adjective (+ly) = different meaning

(hard / hardly, near / nearly, late / lately)

b) suffix   -wise  (clockwise, timewise, likewise)

c) suffix   -ward(s)  (towards, afterwards, eastwards)

d) suffix   -ways   (manyways, sideways)  

 ADVERB PHRASE

- might consists of an adverb functioning as a head and an

adverb functioning as an intensifier / premodifier / adverb of degree

- both words are adverbs – the 2. is head, the 1. is showing the degree (

extremely hard  

intensifier / adverb of degree / premodifier

HEAD

 syntactic function

- functioning in a sentence

- they could take the function of

adverbials, intensifier, premodifier, postmodifier,

prepositional complement

Adverbs function as:

1.) Adverbials        

- conjuncts

- disjuncts

- subjuncts

- adjuncts – but this is the semantic function, it’s just about the meaning

(time, manner, way)

2.) Intensifier in an AdjP or AdvP (very pretty)

3.) Pre od Postmodifier in a NP      

I met him on my journey home

There was rather a mess

4.) Prepositional complement – the adverbs must follow the preposition

I will see you after tomorrow

I haven’t seen him until recently, up to now, ever since

 SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS

 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

a)inflectional comparison with (-er) or (-est)

hard – harder – the hardest

early – earlier – the earliest

b)periphrastic comparison

more / most

 we can use here intensifiers (a bit more)

ADVERBIALS

There are 3 main types of adverbials:

 circumstance adv. - ADJUNCTS ADV.

 stance adv. - DISJUNCTS ADV.

 linking adv. - CONJUNCTS ADV.

 ADJUNCTS - circumstance adv.

- typically describe circumstances, conditions

- action or state

- they answer questions:         

where, when, how, why, to what extend

- may express a wide range of semantic roles

1.) PLACE

1. distance

I have travelled a long way before I reached the camp.

2. direction

He was walking down the street when I met him.

3. position  

The children are playing in the garden.

2.) TIME

1. duration

John went to Poland for 3 weeks. He will stay there until next Sunday.

2. position

Jane’s birthday is in June.

3. frequency

They usually visit their friends once a week.

4. temporal relationship

He is still a member of the club.

3.) PROCESS

1. manner

The teacher explains the rules very clearly.

2. maens (akým prostriedkom)

He tried to reveal the secret by questioning his relatives.

3. instrument

The butcher chopped the meat with a sharp knife.

4. agent

Our dog was knocked out by a fast running car.

(used with passive constructions)

4.) CONTINGENCY

1. reason

Her aunt died of her age.

2. cause

Miss Black was happy because she found the handbag, she had left in the shop.

3. purpose

Ann phoned to invite us for the party.

4. concession (pripustenie)

Although she is on a diet, she can’t resist from her friend.

5. condidtion (VV podmienková)

If the explains me, how to do it, I will be able to do it by myself.

6. result - He stayed up late, so he is very sleepy now.

5.) DEGREE

1. amplifier

She looked very much like her mother.

2. diminution

And he pulled the string a little bit.

6.) Addition & restriction

1. addition - we enjoyed Morphology II, too.
2. restriction - I just want to ask you a question.

7.) Recipients / benefactive adverbials

- expressed by for-phrases

The oranges are so good, that I’m going to save some for the kids.  

8.) other - they express respect

It’s very pleasant to sit here, hidden in the shade of the trees.  

 DISJUNCTS - stance adv.

- there are 2 broad types of disjuncts:

1.) STYLE

1. modality and manner - frankly, honestly, truthfully
2. respect - strictly, generally, literally, personally

2.) CONTENT

1. relating to certainty - perhaps, undoubtedly
2. relating to evaluation

correctly, strangely, funnily, hopefully, stupidly, sensitively

 CONJUNCTS - linking adv.

- coordinative - end, but, or

- can express many different types of connections

- they have the following semantic rules:

1. additive - end, in other words, further more, more over
2. adversative - but, instead, on the other hand, nevertheless
3. casual - because, for, than, in that case, there for
4. temporal - next, then, finally, after

prepositions

 Prepositions are a closed class of items connecting

two units in a sentence and specifying a  

relationship between them.

I don’t like to drink out of a cracked cup.

He was very grateful for her help.

The elderly man in the raincoat looks ill.

 The grammatical form can be:

1. simple = one word   (on, about, in)
2. complex = multiword    (in front of, away from)

 Prepositional phrase

- consists of a preposition + prepositional complement

---- that can be * NP  * Clause   * AdvP

 Position of prepositions

- final position at the end of the sentence:

1. at the end of a relative clause (we are talking about)
2. passive construction  (the doctor was sent for)
3. questions  (what are you talking about?)