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MORPHOLOGY II - poznámky+otázky (morphology___ii-poznamky.doc)

MORPHOLOGY   II.

 

 

NA TESTE UDÁVAŤ AJ PRÍKLADY!!!

 

 

 

VERB PHRASE

 

 

VERB  = clause element = predicate = prísudok

           = word class

 

  1. full verbs (main, lexical, ordinary) – plnovýznamové

 

  1. primary (auxiliary) verbsbe, have, do

 

  1. modal auxiliary verbscan, will, might

 

  1. semi auxiliary verbsbe able to, be suppose to, ...
  2. marginal auxiliary verbsused to, need, dare, ought to
  3. modal idiomshad better, would rather, be to

 

  1. phrasal verbs – multiword verbs

 

 

VERBS AS A WORD CLASS

 

 

MORPHOLOGICAL FORM

 

  1. the structure
  2. it is about inflection
  3. regular verbs normally takes 4 morphological forms, but some take 3 (cut) and more
  4. just the verb “to be” takes 8 MF

 

  1. base form

 

  1. –s form

 

  1. –ing participle – 2 functions / 1 form

 

 

  1. Gerund
  2. Active participle

 

  1. –ed form

 

  1. Past tense
  2. Past/passive participle

 

 

VERBS

 

  1. finite verbs (neurčité),

 

  1. we can identificate basic grammatical categories

 

  1. –s form (he works)

 

  1. past form (past tense)

 

  1. base

 

  1. present (I go to school)
  2. imperative (Go home!)
  3. present subjunctive (we will talk about later)

 

 

  1. non-finite verbs (určité)

 

  1. we can’t identificate basic grammatical categories

 

  1. –ing participle (speaking)

 

  1. ed participle (done)

 

  1. infinitive

 

  1. to infinitive
  2. bare infinitive (without to)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SEMANTIC FUNCTION

 

  1. semantic function depends on the context
  2. verbs depend on the meaning, in which they are used

 

  1. STATIVE VERBS

 

  1. they can’t be used in continuous form / normally not used in progressive

 

  1. verbs of the mind (forget, believe, understand, know, think, remember)
  2. verbs of emotion and feelings (like, hate, prefer, care, want)
  3. verbs of the five senses (see, taste, hear, smell, feel, touch)

– normally take the can/can’t form

  1. verbs of possession (to have, to belong, to won, to possess)
  2. some other verbs (need, depend, cost, remain, contain, seem)

 


 

  1. momentary verbs – without duration, it is just a moment (jump, hit, kick, tap)
  2. transitional verbs – change of the state, from one state to an other

        (stop, fall, die, leave, drown)

 

 

  1. DYNAMIC VERBS

 

  1. Activity verbs
  2. Process verbs
  3. Some stative verbs but with different meaning (to see – I´m seeing her / I see her)

 

 

 

+ DOUČIŤ Z KNIHY SPELLING CHANGES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SPELLING CHANGES

 

The –ing and –s forms are almost invariably predictable from the base of both regular and irregular verbs. The –ing inflection is merely added to the base  ( walk – walking  /        push – pushing )

 

 

The -s inflection has three pronunciations:

 

1.)  /IZ/ after bases ending in voiced or voiceless sibilants – after sibilants š, ž, č, dž

     In these cases the -s form always ends in -es

 

 

        pass – passes                budge - budges

        buzz – buzzes                push - pushes

        catch – catches                 camouflage – camouflages

        watch – watches                 fish – fishes

 

   

2.) /Z/ after bases ending in other voiced sounds – after vowels, when y > i

 

        call – calls                say – says                        carry – carries

        flee – flees                have – has

        try – tries                do – does

        play – plays                 dream – dreams

                 

        

3.)  /S/ after bases ending in other voiceless sounds – after p, t, k

        

        cut – cuts                cook – cooks

        hop – hops                take – takes

        lock – locks

 

 

The -ed forms of regular verbs have three pronunciations:

 

1.)  /Id/ after bases ending in /d/ and /t/

 

        pad – padded                tend – tended

        pat – patted                        rent – rented

 

 

2.)  /d/ after bases ending in voiced sounds other that /d/, including vowels – after vowels

 

        buzz – buzzed                play – played

        call – called                        wave – waved

        budge – budged                love – loved

        tow – towed

 

 

3.)  /t/ after bases ending in voiceless sounds other than /t/ – after voiced consonants

 

        pass – passed                cook – cooked

        pack – packed                 watch – watched

        fish – fished                         like – liked

 

 

Doubling of consonant before -ing and -ed

 

 

  1. A single consonant letter at the end of the base is double before -ing and -ed when the preceding vowel is stressed and spelled with a single letter

 

bar - ´barring – barred                oc´cur – oc´curring – oc´curred

 

 

 

  1. There is normally no doubling when the preceding vowel is unstressed

or is written with two letters

 

        ´enter - ´entering - ´entered        dread – dreading – dreaded

        ´visit - ´visiting - ´visited

 

        

 

  1. British English breaks the rule by doubling after unstressed syllables ending in -l, -m and -p,

doubling is less usual in American English.

 

        travel – travelling – travelled     British and American English  

        

        travel – traveling – travelled     American English only

 

 

 

  1. In both British and American English the general rule is broken by the doubling of -g in the word

        

        humbug – humbugging - humbugged

 

 

  1. and of words ending in c (spelled –ck)

 

        panic – panicking – panicked

 

 

 

  1. In certain verbs whose base ends in a vowel followed by -s, there is a variation between -s and     -ss when the inflection is added

 

        ´bias – ´biasing / ´biassing – ´biased / ´biassed

        

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Deletion of and addition of -e

 

 

  1. If the base ends in an unpronounced -e, this -e is regularly dropped before

the -ing and the -ed inflection

 

create – creating – created                bake – baking – baked         

 

 

 

  1. Verbs with monosyllabic bases in -ye, -oe and -nge (pronounced /ndз), are exceptions

to this rule – they do not lose the -e before -ing, but they do lose it before -ed

 

 

        dye – dyeing – dyed                hoe – hoeing – hoed

        

 

 

  1. The final –e is also lost before –ed by verbs ending in –ie or –ee

 

        tie – tied                die – died

 

 

 

  1. Before the -s ending an -e is added after the following letters: s, z, ch, sh, x

 

        pass – passes        watch – watches                coax – coaxes

buzz – buzzes        wash – washes

 

 

 

Treatment of -y

 

 

  1. In bases ending in a consonant followed by -y, the following changes take place:

 

 

1.)     -y changes to -ie before -s                                carry – carries                 try – tries

 

 

2.)    -y changes to -i before -ed                                 carry – carried                try – tried

 

 

3.)    -y remains where it follows a vowel letter                stay – stayed                 alloy – alloys

 

 

4.)    -y remains where it precedes -ing                        carry – carrying                 stay – staying

 

 

5.)     in verbs whose bases end in -ie, the -ie changes to -y before -ing is added

        

        die – dying                lie – lying                tie – tying                 vie – vying

 

 

 

VERBS ACCORDING TO THEIR FUNCTION IN A CLAUSE – SYNTACTIC FUNCTION

 

Verbs determine which other clause elements MUST be in a sentence.

According to this we have these types:

 

1. COPULAR VERBS

 

  1. they link a subject complement Cs – if there is a Cs there is always a copular verb
  2. they link an Adverbial A

 

  1. most frequent is to be
  2. verbs of feeling – feel, look, smell, sound
  3. bodily sensation verbs
  4. the change of state – to became, to get, to turn
  5. other verbs – return, prove, stay

 

 

2. INTRANSITIVE VERBS

 

 

  1. the relation to an object in a sentence
  2. verbs that don’t take any object – it rains, it hurts, she is running, she is crying,                                  she speaks clearly
  3. the meaning of a verb in a given sentence

 

speak – either intransitive (she is speaking) or monotransive (she speaks English)

 

 

 

        it depends on the meaning

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3. TRANSITIVE VERBS

 

 

  1. always followed by one or more objects

 

  1. monotransitive verbs

 

- followed by 1 object direct – Oi can never ever stand without Od => 2 objects

 

I read a book.

I saw her.

I love/like/want her.

She drinks/eats.

 

 

  1. ditransitive verbs

 

- are followed by 2 objects Oi + Od – always this combination, always in this sequence

 

        I gave him a book.

        I sent him a letter.

        I make him coffee.

        She told me the news.

 

 

  1. complex transitive verbs

 

- there is an object but there must be something else, too

 

  1. Object + Object complement   O + Co

 

I find English grammar easy.

I saw her naked.

It makes me happy.

It makes me want to cry.

 

  1. Object + obligatory Adverbial   O + A

 

        I gave the book to him. – it must be there

 

        I gave something somewhere or to someone.

 

 

4. ERGATIVE VERBS

 

  1. it is a group of verbs that have the same meaning and can be transitive or intransitive
  2. with the same meaning they can be either intransitive or transitive

 

I opened the door – transitive

The door opened – intransitive

 

        to shut

        to close

        to play

        

VERB PHRASES

 

  1. in English we have to think in phrases
  2. a verb phrase is a phrase consisting of one or more verbs

 

 

1. SIMPLE VERB PHRASE

 

 

  1. a VP consisting of 1 verb

 

She  speaks  English.

 

 

        1 VP – 1 full verb

 

 

 

2. COMPLEX VERB PHRASE

 

 

 

- they all can be combined

- this is also the order of combination

  1. modal         (M – modal + inf)
  2. perfect         (H – have + ed2)
  3. progressive         (Bpr – be + ing)
  4. passive         (Bpa – be + ed2)

 

 

              full verb

 

 

   In 1 VP there is always just 1 full verb.

 

 

        The building must have been being reconstructed.  

 

   

 

           auxiliary verbs            just the last one is a full verb

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

        

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

VERB PHRASE

 

 

  1. FINITE VP

 

  1. they occur in independent clauses
  2. the first verb is finite – the first verb is deciding
  3. present x past – they show basic grammatical categories
  4. the have mood – indicative, imperative, subjunctive

 

I  will have been

 

 

           finite

 

 

 

  1. NON-FINITE VP

 

 

- grammatical features

- opposite of finite features

  1. the first verb is non-finite
  2. -ing

-ed

-to inf.

 

        Having done my homework I could go out.

 

 

 

        non-finite

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

contrast expressed in the verb phrase

 

 

- contrast = grammatical categories → we are going to study these

 

 

  1. TENSE        - present

- past

 

 

 

  1. ASPECT - perfect        - present

        - past

 

                        - progressive = continuous

 

 

  1. MOOD         - indicative

- imperative

- subjunctive

 

 

  1. FINITENESS        - finite

- non-finite

 

 

  1. VOICE        - active

- passive

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS

 

 

  1. pomocné slovesá
  2. they help us to create various phrases
  3. to be, to have, to do – they are both auxiliary or fully verbs

 

 

TO HAVE

 

 

  1. auxiliary         – perfect phrases (I have done my homework)

        – operator – words that create questions and negative forms

 

 

 

  1. semiauxiliary verbhave (got) to

 

 

 

  1. full verb – various meanings

 

 

        1.) Possesion

                        

                a) false possessionI have a flu

                b) logical relationto have fun, to have a chance

                c) fixed phrasesto have a cold

 

 

                        Do you have a brother? – American English

 

                        Have you got a brother? – British English common

 

                        Have you a brother? – Standard British English old fashioned

 

                        

 

                2.) Meanings of HAVE GOT – used only in present, in past we use HAD

 

 

        a) possession – I have got a brother

        b) obligationI have got to do something, I have got to go home = Musím

        c) have got in perfectI have got a letter

        d) question of understandingHave you got it? = Chápeš? Rozumieš?

 

 

        

 

 

 

 

        3.) “Action” have + Noun         

 

                        - HAVE = DYNAMIC – translated by 1 verb

                

                to have a shower = sprchovať sa

                to have lunch

                to have a bath

 

        

        

        

        4.) “Empty “ have (give, take, make,…)

 

        to have a lecture – nominalization

        

        native says – to give a lecture, to take a lecture  

 

 

 

 

        5.) Phrases

 

                a) have something done = dať si niečo spraviť

 

                        I have my breakfast prepared = mala som pripravené raňajky

 

 

        b) have somebody do something

 

                I have a waiter bring some coffee = mám na to čašníka

                I have my mother prepare breakfast for me

                I have my students give examples

 

 

 

        nejde o negatívne vyjadrenie

 

 

        t

 

           There are 3 confusing phrases:

 

  1. to make somebody do something –prinútiť

        

        You will be made to study – in passive

 

  1. to have somebody do something – mať niekoho na niečo

3 + 4 + 5 = MULTIWORD PHRASES

  1. to get somebody to do something – priviesť niekoho k niečomu

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TO DO

 

 

  1. auxiliary         – operator        
  1. interrogative (Do you have?)
  2. negative (I don´t have)
  3. negative imperative (Don´t go there!)

 

        – emphatic                 

  1. affirmative (I do like you)
  2. imperative (Do go home!)

 

 

 

  1. full verb         – transitive meaning
  1. do x make – produce, create, result of the process  

 

        – phrases with gerund  (do the shopping, do the ironing)

        

        fixed phrases (do me a fovour, do the course)

 

 

 

  1. PRO FORM         – form used instead of something

                          Do you study? Yes, I do. – instead of study

 

                  I study English. I wouldn’t do that. – pro-form of study

 

 

 

TO BE

 

 

  1. auxiliary         – progress phrase

        – passive

 

 

 

  1. FULL VERB         – linking verbs

        – different meaning

        – fixed phrases

 

 

  1. semiauxiliary verbs – to be to

 

 

MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS

 

 

MODAL AUXILIARIES

 

  1. central (can, may, must, will, shall)
  2. marginal (need, dare, used to, ought to)
  3. semi-auxiliaries (be able to, be about to, be bounded to)
  4. modal idioms (had better, would rather, have got to, be to)

 

 

 

 

CENTRAL AUXILIARIES

 

  1. CAN + could, would, might = past
  2. they have present, future and past meaning + their own meaning

 

I can do it today  /  I can do it tomorrow = future

You may go out today   /    you may go out tomorrow = future

 

I can go swimming now = present

 

We could have gone swimming when we wanted = past (môžem)

We could bring our friends for yesterday party = past (smiem)

 

 

Periphrastic equivalents (opisné tvary)

 

  1. they describe the ability in an other way:

 

I could speak English when I was ten.

I was able to speak English when I was ten.

 

  1. they might either have the same meaning or a different meaning
  2. but there is usually limited meaning
  3. they are used when we want to combine 2 modal central auxiliaries
  4. 2 modal auxiliaries can’t be used in 1 phrase

we must use 1 central modal auxiliary + 1 periphrastic equivalent

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ALL GRAMMAR FEATURES OF MODAL AUXILIARIES

 

 

  1. all take bare infinitive

 

  1. either present infinitive (I could go)
  2. or past infinitive (I could have gone / To have done something )

 

  1. they take no inflection

 

- HE CAN – without (S), without (ED) and without (ING) endings

 

 

  1. they function always as operators

 

- we create questions and negatives through them

 

 

  1. they may have different meaning in negation

 

I like vs. I don´t like it is the clear opposite meaning

 

 

        

        but not with central modal auxiliaries

 

 

 

        must needn’t / don’t need to / may not / don’t have to / can’t / mustn’t

 

  1. must pay  needn’t pay
  2. you had to pay last year  you didn’t have to pay

                                 you needn’t have paid         

  1. you must be here  you mustn’t smoke (prohibition, official)
  2. it must be John  It can’t be John                 

 

 

THE DIFFERENCE

- must – inside, inner motivation (used in formal prohibitions)

- have to – external motivation (sometimes a weaker form)

- have got to

 

I must go home – because I want to study.

I have to go home – because my parents say so.

 

 

I have go home vs. I have got to go home         - used only in present

        - informal, much more frequent in colloquial language

 

 

     the same meaning

 

 

  1. they have different scope of negation

 

I may not go home          may not = you are not allowed to go home

         not go = smieš neísť domov

 

 

You may not ask me questions         may not = nesmieš sa ma pýtať otázky

                 not as = nemusíš, ak nechceš

 

 

In real life it is clear form the context, we always know it.

 

 

  1. in a verb phrase the modal auxiliary is always the first verb

 

 

  1. there may be combined more verbs in 1 verb phrase

 

for example – perfect + continuous + past

 

 

  1. they take different forms in various phrases

 

 

  1. some nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs have similar meaning

 

 

  1. they have very often different meanings

 

  1. DEONTIC MEANING – very basic:         can = to be able to

        may = to be allowed to

        must = to be obligated to

 

                

Somebody is smoking          It is John. (100% sure)

DEONTIC

different, but just in the degree of possibility

         It may (50%) / might (30%) be John.

         It can (30%) / could be John.

         It must be John. (80 – 90%)

         It will be John. (90 – 80%)

         It should be John.

 

  1. EPISTEMIC MEANING

 

- different past tense

 

It must be It must have been (mohol by to byť)

It might I might have been

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TIME, TENSE, ASPECT

 

 

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TIME AND TENSE

 

 

TIME        - not a grammatical category

        - extra linguistic reality that must be expressed by grammatical category

        - present + future + past = philosophical category

        - the speaker sets the limit what we mean by “now”

        - it is subjective what is present, it is psychological subjective

 

        Have you done …? – connected with present (present perfect)

        Did you do…? – connected with past

 

 

 

TENSE        - is also very subjective in English grammar

                - the aspect depends on speaker

                - JUST PRESENT + PAST

- linguistically we talk about present tense and past tense because the tense is a term

 meaning 1 morphological form (words with suffixes) used for expressing time

- for future there are no morphological forms

- there are various phrases to express the future morphological form

- practically the notion tense mean any grammatical verb phrase

 

 

 

ASPECT        - very subjective grammatical category, it is a psychological category

        - it is a grammatical category that reflects the way in which the meaning of a full verb is

          viewed with respect to time

        - how I as a speaker view the meaning with respect to time

        - it depends – it is subjective

 

 

Where do you live? the answers can be all these:

 

  1. I live in Bratislava – permanent
  2. I’m living in Bratislava – temporary – how long – but it is personal
  3. I have been living in Bratislava for 2 weeks now – also temporary – I want to move somewhere
  4. I have lived here since I was five – permanent – I want to stay

 

 

 

 

PERFECT ASPECT

 

– means finished / unfinished + complete / uncompleted

 

 

 

PROGRESSIVE / CONTINUOUS ASPECT

 

  1. has got some special meanings

 

  1. we use it:    1. when some activity is in progress right now (we are speaking)

        2. it has some duration (we are having a lecture)

        3. change of state (she is getting older)

        4. temporariness (I’m living – not permanent)

        5. annoyance (you are always coming late, he is always asking questions)

        

                   It is always connected with characteristic behaviour.

                   We can not say she always comes late if it is not annoying, irritating.

        

 

        6. series of momentary facts, regular repetition of something (the child is jumping)

 

                

        If we want to emphasize this regular repetition – wherever, whenever

                                

                           I am drinking juice every morning – no matter if I am home or in a hotel.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PRESENT SIMPLE

 

USAGE:

 

        1.)   present states (I love you)

        2.)   habitual present (I get up at 6 a.m. every morning)

  3.)   universal statement – time (The Sun rises in the east)

  4.)   for past narrative past – historically – use it much more frequently (Yesterday I came home)

5.)   for future   after time expressions

                           (when you come home / as soon as / if) – conditional clauses

                     calendar (diary) future

                         (the train leaves) – time conjunctions: when, before, after, as soon as, as long as

 

 

PRESENT CONTINUOUS / PROGRESSIVE

 

USAGE:

 

  1. activity in progress right now (I am speaking)
  2. activities that have some duration (we are having a lecture)
  3. events around present (what are you reading now?)
  4. characteristic behaviours, usually irritating (I am always losing my keys)
  5. changing go the state (I am getting older)
  6. for future arranged activity ( I am getting married in summer)
  7. describing of the atmosphere – what’s going on (it is raining, people are running)
  8. polite phrases (I am wondering, if you could do it for me)

                          (I am thinking of …)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PAST SIMPLE

 

USAGE:

 

  1. definite time in the past (time adverbial), in context (I watched TV last night)
  2. habitual past ( I got up at 6 o’clock when I studied / I used to …)
  3. states in the past can’t be used continuously (I remembered it)
  4. in backshift – reported speech (she said she was tired)
  5. if clauses – 2nd conditional (if I knew that, I would tell you)

 

 

 

PAST CONTINUOUS

 

USAGE:

 

  1. activity in progress in a moment in past

(at 5 o’clock I was watching TV / when he entered the classroom, she was explaining grammar)

 

 

2.) activity in progress within some time interval

    (I was watching TV for 3 hours – from 1 to 3)

    (Last night – all the night – I was watching TV)

 

 

  1. two activities that were in progress simultaneously

(when I was speaking, my students were listening)

 

 

4.) events that are describing atmosphere in past

    (the sun was shining)

 

 

5.) polite forms – but past is more polite than present and continuous is more polite that present

    (I wonder who could help me)

    (I am wondering who could help me)

    (I wondered who could help me)

    (I was wondering who could help me)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PRESENT PERFECT

 

USAGE:

 

  1. consequences of present event – hovorím o prítomnosti

describe the present result of previous activity

 

I have prepared lunch – tu je

I have explained grammar – teraz

 

  1. talking about an experience

 

Have you been to Prague?

Have you ever met my brother?

 

  1. as soon as there is a time adverbial meaning this moment

recently, just now, this week, this year, up to now, this century

 

        Have you had coffee this morning? (do 12:00)

 

  1. unfinished states

 

I have known you for 2 years – hovoríme o stave

 

  1. some fixed phrases

 

This is the 1st time I have met you.

This is the 2nd time I have met you.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PRESENT PERFECT Continuous

 

  1. activities, that started in the past an have been in process till now / and was in progress till now
  2. usage of for, since (usually)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 PRESENT

 

 

1.  

 

4.                                                         repeated actitivy (very regular repetition)

                                                        I get up = habit

                                                        I am getting up = I really

                                                        I want to emphasize regularity!!!

                                                        –– každé božie ráno ......veľmi pravideľne

3.                                                        activity finished recently / still in the evidence

2.                                                         Have you been practising English?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PAST PERFECT

 

  1. the activity that was in progress at some moment in the past
  2. reported speech (very frequently)
  3. usage of before (not necessarily), after

 

 

 

 

 

 

FUTURE

 

1.)  will        – general facts in the future

        – prediction

        – momentary

 

2.)  to be going        – intentions

                – planning intentions mienim, plánujem – mám umysel

 

3.)  present evidence that something will happen (Look at the clouds, it is going to rain.)

 

4.)  present continuous

 

5.) transitional verbs with tense (The bus is leaving.)

 

6.)  diary, time-table, callendar – very strong rule (The meeting is on Monday.)

 

 

 

FUTURE continuous

 

I will be seeing you tomorrow ----- for sure, I promise

 

 

FUTURE PERFECT

 

we will have finished - by 8.30

 

 

        “by” is important here

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

 

 

I will have being explaining grammar    by the end of this session for 40 minutes.

 

 

        

        “by” is important here

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

OTHER FUTURE PHRASES

 

 

1)        This is near future  to be about to

 

 

Phrases:        I´m just about to …………………. if I want to emphasize

        

        I´m on the point of explaining this to you……....práve už teraz som to chcela urobiť

        

        To be on the verge of …………..už je to na spadnutie (už trochu dekoratívny jazyk)

 

 

 

2)        to be to + to be due to ----------- both are frequent phrases in Slovak

 

        Who else is to come? ---------- weaker, not his dutty

 

        Who else is due to come? ---------- stronger, emphasizing a duty

 

 

 

        Who else is due to come? …………. Kto má ešte prísť?

 

        Who was to bring an overhead projector?

 

        

 

3)        Last point of the future phases:

        

Some modal verbs have future meaning - just semantically, just in the meaning - no grammatical changes - CAN, MAY, TO BE LIKELY TO

 

 

 

4)        All the 9 phrases can be used in passive (except 1) and past in indirect speech.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

VOICE

 

  1. a new grammatical category
  2. can be active or passive

 

Generally about the usage of passive:

 

  1. much more in English than in Slovak

 

  1. in Slovak we translate it in active - it doesn’t sound naturally, native like
  2. we tend to translate actively interferences

 

  1. in English active is much more frequent than passive

 

  1. the usage of passive in English:

 

a) genre         - in formal language

        - technical materials

        - legal letters

        - official language

 

b) transitive verbs (that takes Object) can be use in passive form (except transitive stative)

 

 

        c) intransitive verbs can create 2 different passives:

 

                I gave him a book           The book was given to him

                                                He was given a book

        

 

 

very frequent, but we don’t use them

                                                in English the personal passive constructions are preferred

 

        He was said  hovorí sa o ňom

        He was told bolo mu povedané

 

 

        d) when the agent is not important, but the process is

                

                the bridge was built

                the car was stolen

 

 

        e) when we want to emphasize the process

 

                the hotel was built

 

 

        f) when the object is obvious

 

        he was imprisoned

 

 

 

GRAMMATICAL FEATURES

 

THEME & RHYME

 

Peter was given a book.

 

1.)        Peter = T

        was given a book = R  ------------------ it is about Peter, Peter is my friend                                             

 

2.)        Peter = R

        was given a book = T ------------------- it is about the book, the book is great

 

 

 

WHEN DO WE USE “GET”

 

- GET is used in fix phrases - to get married / dressed / divorced

 

The prisoner was caught - chytili ho

The prisoner got caught - nechal sa chytiť - usually implied a personal factor

 

 

He was married - it is a state

He got married - it is a process

 

 

He was examed - skúšali ho

He got examed - nechal sa vyskúšať

 

 

 

ANTICIPATORY IT

 

  1. “It” constructions with passive

 

 

It’s believed, claimed, suggested, supposed …..

 

It’s believed, that our students are very bright (je verené, veríme, panuje všeobecný názor, že…)

 

 

STATIVE AND DYNAMIC MEANING

 

My car is reppared state, stative passive  ……….. “is reppared” is subject complement here

 

My car is reppared every month dynamic passive

 

        

 

PREPOSITIONS

 

- go to the end of  the sentence

 

 

MOOD

 

  1. Indicative
  2. imperative
  3. subjunctive (podmieňovací)

 

 

 

SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT - “be”  (bear)

 

A) mandative        - in “that” clauses

                        - adverbs: demand, insist, suggest

                        - especially in American English (+BE) and in formal style

                        - can be replaced (should, to-inf.)

 

                                I suggest he should not go home.

 

 

 

B) formative                - in set expression (fixed phrases)

                        

                                God save the Queen!

                                Come what may

                                Be that it may

                                Heaven forbid

                                So be (nech je)

 

 

 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST - “were” (was)

 

  1. meaning is hypothetical, unreal
  2. in conditional and concessive clauses (prípustkové - hoci)
  3. after: if (only), even if, as it, even though
  4. after: wish, it’s time, I’d rather, suppose  (Suppose you understood the grammar, you can go home)
  5. sometimes can be replaced by to-inf. (It’s time for you to finish)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ADVERBS

 

disjuncts

 

                                            conjuncts        sentence       adjuncts

subjuncts

 

 

Subjuncts         - are less important

        - they can be lot    (have you done that? /  have you already done that?)

                                      (she is here  /  she is still her)

                                      (just)

 

  1. as for me, in my opinion, as far as I know (disj.)
  2. in my opinion - it is carrying meaning on it´s own

Yes, you are right, but in my opinion - opposite meaning

Actually, I don’t know but as far as I know …. - not a clearly answer

 

  1. at the beginning (disj.)

 

ADVERBS = príslovky

ADVERBIALS = príslovkové určenie (miesta)

 

 

ADVERBS        – belong to an open part of class of speech

        – belong to predication

 

Adverb – word class (príslovky)

Adverbial – clause element (príslovkové určenie)

 

 

MORPHOLOGICAL FORMS

 

  1. simple adverbs
  2. compound adverbs (moreover, furthermore, thereafter, nevertheless, somehow, somewhere)
  3. derivational adverbs = adverbs with suffixes

 

        a) suffix   -ly            - adjective + ly (happy / happily)

                - adjective = adverb (lovely, friendly, weekly, kindly)

                - adjective (+ly) = the same meaning

                                            (first / firstly, loud / loudly, deep / deeply)

 

                - adjective (+ly) = different meaning

                                            (hard / hardly, near / nearly, late / lately)

 

        b) suffix   -wise  (clockwise, timewise, likewise)

 

        c) suffix   -ward(s)  (towards, afterwards, eastwards)

 

        d) suffix   -ways   (manyways, sideways)  

 

ADVERB PHRASE

 

  1. might consists of an adverb functioning as a head and an adverb functioning as an intensifier / premodifier / adverb of degree
  2. both words are adverbs – the 2. is head, the 1. is showing the degree (how much)

                 

extremely hard   HEAD

 

intensifier / adverb of degree / premodifier

 

 

syntactic function

 

  1. functioning in a sentence
  2. they could take the function of

    adverbials, intensifier, premodifier, postmodifier, prepositional complement

 

 

Adverbs function as:

 

1.) Adverbials        - conjuncts

                - disjuncts

                - subjuncts

                - adjuncts – but this is the semantic function, it’s just about the meaning

                                 (time, manner, way)

 

2.) Intensifier in an AdjP or AdvP (very pretty)

 

3.) Pre od Postmodifier in a NP     I met him on my journey home

                                              There was rather a mess

                                              He is such a …

 

4.) Prepositional complement – the adverbs must follow the preposition

        I will see you after tomorrow

        I haven’t seen him until recently, up to now, ever since

        He came home from abroad

 

 

SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS

 

  1. adverbials – we will study this later in syntax

 

 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

 

  1. inflectional comparison with (-er) or (-est)

 

        hard – harder – the hardest

        early – earlier – the earliest

 

  1. periphrastic comparison

 

        more / most

 

we can use here intensifiers (a bit more)

ADVERBIALS

 

There are 3 main types of adverbials:

 

circumstance adv. - ADJUNCTS ADV.

stance adv. - DISJUNCTS ADV.

linking adv. - CONJUNCTS ADV.

 

 

 

ADJUNCTS - circumstance adv.

 

  1. typically describe circumstances, conditions
  2. action or state
  3. they answer questions:         where

                                        when

                                        how

                                        why

                                        to what extend

        

  1. may express a wide range of semantic roles

 

 

1.) PLACE

 

  1. distance - I have travelled a long way before I reached the camp.
  2. direction - He was walking down the street when I met him.
  3. position  - The children are playing in the garden.

 

 

2.) TIME

 

  1. duration - John went to Poland for 3 weeks. He will stay there until next Sunday.
  2. position - Jane’s birthday is in June.
  3. frequency - They usually visit their friends once a week.
  4. temporal relationship - He is still a member of the club.

 

 

3.) PROCESS

 

  1. manner - The teacher explains the rules very clearly.
  2. maens (akým prostriedkom) - He tried to reveal the secret by questioning his relatives.
  3. instrument - The butcher chopped the meat with a sharp knife.
  4. agent - Our dog was knocked out by a fast running car. (used with passive constructions)

 

 

 

 

 

4.) CONTINGENCY

 

  1. reason - Her aunt died of her age.
  2. cause - Miss Black was happy because she found the handbag, she had left in the shop.
  3. purpose - Ann phoned to invite us for the party.
  4. concession (pripustenie) - Although she is on a diet, she can’t resist from her friend.
  5. condidtion (VV podmienková) - If the explains me, how to do it, I will be able to do it by myself.
  6. result - He stayed up late, so he is very sleepy now.

 

 

5.) DEGREE

 

  1. amplifier - She looked very much like her mother.
  2. diminution - And he pulled the string a little bit.

 

 

6.) Addition & restriction

 

  1. addition - We enjoyed Morphology II, too.
  2. restriction - I just want to ask you a question.

 

 

7.) Recipients / benefactive adverbials

 

- expressed by for-phrases

 

The oranges are so good, that I’m going to save some for the kids.  

 

 

8.) other - they express respect

 

It’s very pleasant to sit here, hidden in the shade of the trees.  (kde sa schováva)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DISJUNCTS - stance adv.

 

- there are 2 broad types of disjuncts:

 

1.) STYLE

 

  1. modality and manner - frankly, honestly, truthfully
  2. respect - strictly, generally, literally, personally

 

 

2.) CONTENT

 

  1. relating to certainty - perhaps, undoubtedly
  2. relating to evaluation - correctly, strangely, funnily, hopefully, stupidly, sensitively

 

 

 

CONJUNCTS - linking adv.

 

  1. coordinative - end, but, or
  2. can express many different types of connections
  3. they have the following semantic rules:

        

  1. additive - end, in other words, further more, more over
  2. adversative - but, instead, on the other hand, nevertheless
  3. casual - because, for, than, in that case, there for
  4. temporal - next, then, finally, after

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

prepositions

 

 

Prepositions are a closed class of items connecting two units in a sentence and specifying a  

    relationship between them.

 

 

        I don’t like to drink out of a cracked cup.

He was very grateful for her help.

The elderly man in the raincoat looks ill.

 

 

The grammatical form can be:

 

  1. simple = one word   (on, about, in)
  2. complex = multiword    (in front of, away from)

 

 

 

 

Prepositional phrase

 

  1. consists of a preposition + prepositional complement ---- that can be * NP

  * Clause

  * AdvP

 

 

Position of prepositions

 

  1. final position at the end of the sentence:

 

  1. at the end of a relative clause (we are talking about)
  2. passive construction  (the doctor was sent for)
  3. questions  (what are you talking about?)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MORPHOLOGY   II. - seminár

 

 

NON-FINITE VERB FORMS

 

 

  1. PARTICIPLE – ACTIVE

 

Present Participle Active Voice (činný rod) = going

 

Past Participle Active Voice = Ø

 

Perfect Participle Active Voice – having gone

 

 

  1. PARTICIPLE – PASSIVE

 

Present Participle Passive Voice (trpný rod) = being gone

 

Past Participle Passive Voice = gone

(Irregular Verbs – Past Participle / Regular Verbs – Past Tense)

 

Perfect Participle Passive Voice = having been gone

 

 

  1. GERUND – ACTIVE

 

Present Gerund Active Voice = going

 

Perfect Gerund Active Voice = having gone

 

 

  1. GERUND – PASSIVE

 

Present Gerund Passive Voice = being gone

 

Perfect Gerund Passive Voice = having being gone

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  1. PRESENT INFINITIVE – ACTIVE

 

Present Simple Infinitive Active Voice = go

 

Present Continuous Infinitive Active Voice = to be going

 

 

  1. PRESENT INFINITIVE – PASSIVE

 

Present Simple Infinitive Passive Voice = to be gone

 

Present Continuous Infinitive Passive Voice = Ø

 

 

  1. PERFECT INFINITIVE - ACTIVE

 

Perfect Simple Infinitive Active Voice = to have gone

 

Perfect Continuous Infinitive Active Voice = to have been going

 

 

  1. PERFECT INFINITIVE – PASSIVE

 

Perfect Simple Infinitive Passive Voice = to have bee gone

 

Perfect Continuous Infinitive Passive Voice = Ø

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FUTURE

 

going to - present intention for future, future meaning, general intention

will - sudden decision (I will answer it)

present continuous - arranged, definite arrangement for the future, more limited

                                (I am meeting you tonight)

 

 

 

PREDICITON

 

going to - It is going to rain (I can see it)

will - She will get here soon (expectations)

 

 

may rise (modal)

will rise (adv.)

almost certainly

 

It is likely to be.

There is a chance that our team will win.

I bet (staviť sa)

I recon (think)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.) STATE (STATEMENT) VERBS / STATIVE VERBS

 

 

think

VERBS OF THINKING

recognize

remember

realize

know

 

 

 

love

VERBS OF FEELING

hate

like

dislike

 

 

 

see

 

 

 

 

 

+ CAN

smell

VERBS OF SENSE – if we want emphasize them

 

taste

hear

touch

 

 

 

2.) ACTION VERBS / DYNAMIC VERBS

 

 

ACTION VERBS – most of the verbs in English

 

 

QUESTION TAGS -         aren’t you?

        didn’t you?      did you? - obrátene

        don’t you?

 

 

 

 

Yes, I do = áno

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I don´t  = nie

 

You watch TV every day, don’t you?          

 

 

I do = áno

 

 

 

 

 

No, I don´t = nie

 

You don’t watch TV every day, do you?

 

 

MOOD & MODALITY

 

She can’t have lost the match.

negative

You can’t have being sleeping 2 hours.

He can’t have slept 3 hours.

You can’t have meant it seriously.

 

 

 

       a moment of surprise, doubts (veď, vari azda)

 

 

 

He never knew what he could do and what he couldn’t.

 

 

 

      change of tenses in indicative mood (pravidlo o súslednosti časov)

 

 

 

He might / may miss the train.

He may be coming back later.

 

 

He may not come tonight - moderate (mierne)

He must not come tonight - very strict   it is subjective

He is not allowed to come tonight - official statement    it is objective

 

 

 

 

I don’t think it will be possible for you to take a photo.

 

Do you think I’ll be free to say what I want?

 

Will he be allowed to buy a building plot in that place?

 

 

 

He may have done it so.

 

He may have given up smoking / drugs.

 

 

 

 

Much good may it do you!

 

Long may you live and enjoy it!

 

May she rest in peace!

 

 

 

 

SHALL

 

 

  1. zdvorilé, citovo zafarbené SHALL
  2. 1.osoba Sg. / Pl. - vždy SHALL

 

 

 

TO DARE

 

 

How dare you?  - Ako sa opovažuješ?

He dare not come!  - Neodvažuje sa prísť!

 

to dare, dared, dared

 

He dared not contradict me.

 

Don´t you dare touch me! - Neopovažuj sa ma dotknúť!

 

You dare come and ask for a leave? - Ty sa opovažuješ prísť a žiadať ma?

 

 

I dare say - B.E.  /  I daresay - A.E.

 

 

 

     nesporne, vari, azda, možno, pravdepodobne

 

 

 

I dare say they would no mind, if we arrive a bit later as we said.  

 

 

 

Full verb dare         - vyzvať dakoho na ničeo - He dared them to complete with him.

                - vzdorovať, čeliť niekomu, vzoprieť sa - He will dare any danger.

                

 

Durst - zastaraný tvar od dare

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PRESENT SIMPLE

 

State verbs:         think, hope, agree

        sense (perception)

        feeling

        both static, passive………I see = I understand / I´m seeing = meeting

        always………I always cook. / I´m always cooking.

                        

        

 

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

 

- the same + irritating situation (always)

 

 

 

PAST SIMPLE

 

  1. use - used
  2. used to (I don´t do any more)
  3. would - repeated situation in the past (I would cry when we met together)
  4. so far - doposiaľ

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TEST A

 

  1. functions of verb forms
  2. verbs as operators
  3. uses of the passive
  4. some meanings of expressing future time
  5. mood markers would and should
  6. deferred prepositions
  7. subjuncts
  8. finite verb phrase
  9. marginal modal auxiliaries
  10. verb senses and the progressive

 

 

 

TEST B

 

  1. contrast expressed in the verb phrase
  2. the primary verb BE
  3. meaning of the non finite verb phrase
  4. meaning and forms of the modals
  5. form of the subjunctive
  6. comparison of adverbs
  7. prepositions of time
  8. the past tense forms of the modals
  9. the perfect progressive
  10. future time forms in the past

 

 

 

 

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