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ÚVOD DO ŠTÚDIA LITERATúURY - POZNÁMKY (language-poznamky.doc)

LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS

Language=system of symbols used for communication. Human language has a very difficult vocabulary. Language is a dynamic flexible system, different other kind of communication

Linguistics=scientific study, deals with human language. There are about 4000 languages, 20000 with all dialects and everyone has an idiolect.

Communication =verbal/nonverbal

Ferdinad de Saussure-sociologist. His theory says that the language system exists only with social system, it is just a manual. Language is here a social phenomena. His communicative function  – langue=language system (functions only with society) + parole=speech (realization of L.S.), for him sign is a bilateral phenomena.

Chomsky-psychologist. His theory says that the language system may exists with the society, he deals individual knowledge, we are born with a predisposition to learn language, some kind of inner grammar, we learn that what is around us-competence=ability to speak (knowledge by an individual) + performance=use of this competence in individual speech. Chomsky claims that children are born with a hard-wired language acquisition device (LAD) in their brains. They are born with the major principles of l. in place, but with many parameters to set. When the young child is exposed to a l., the LAD makes it possible for them to set the parameters and deduce the grammatical principles, because the principles are innate.

PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE

1. ARBITRARINESS

-arbitrary=linguistic form, conventionality, name of the subject is obligatory

-link to conventionality, extra-lnguistic reality(no direct link between the entities and their names)

-Onomatopoeia-imitate natural sounds, there is a relationship between phoneme & onom.(they are non arbitrary,particulary)

2. DISPACEMENT --we can think and speak about past & future, about feelings, human l. is abstract

3. DUALITY -2 levels=elements(meaningless)abstract/units(meaningful)-distinctive function(pet/pit)

4. DISCRETENESS --just one meaning, in speech I can diff. realize the context meaning, but the word is discretened (pit/pet)

5. PRODUCTIVITY --we can combinate words, sentences(l.system like a puzzle)   (the president)

6. CULTURAL TRANSMISSION --one generation teaches l. an other generation

LANGUAGE CLASSIFICATION

1.Geographical-on the same territory, but not genetically the same

2.Genetic-Sanskrit=common indoeuropean protolanguage, most European languages developed of it / 41 language groups in the world

3.Typological-based on similarity & diff. of the language (lex.synt.ohnol.morf)

Morphological character-how do we express gram cat.=synthetic(Slovak)-the gram.cat. make a internal part of the word (agglutinative-Hungary,polysn-American-Indian,introflectional-arabic l.) / analytic-the organisation of in the sentence give us the gram.cat.(Chinese,English,French)

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE

-OE-7-11 / ME-1100-1500-ModernE-1500 till today

-CELTS-Celtik language-first l. in Britain

-GERMAN TRIBES-old German mostly influenced the E.l.       (dialects=northumbiran /Mercian /anglian /west-saxon)

-ANGLO-SAXONS –Latin penetrated E.vocabulary

-WIKINGS-8-10-old norse

-NORMAN FRENCH-1066-WtC-BoH-they became the ruling class-French in high-soc., economics, kitchen, law + to mediate some words from Latin

-OE was a synthethic type of l.-4gram.cases(NGDA) - change from OE synthetic to ModernE analytic-stress was only on the stem of the word, the suffixes were glued to it-dissapeared grammaticalization(synt.oraganisation of the words in a sentence(components have a typical position)

-OE had a multiple negation – change – influence of Latin+racionalistic view(single negation is more logical)

APPROACHES IN STUDY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

1.DIACHRONY-study the course of the development, history comparation-comparative method(past/present)

2. SYNCHRONY-l.is studied from the point of view of a particular period, l.as a stabile product at that moment, contrastive method (l.vs an other l.)

ENGLISH LANGUAGE VARIANTS

LOCAL DIALECTS-typical for changing the phonemesthe result as a diff.word, relatively unstabile, spoke by elderly & less educated people, 5 types of dialects in E. / ain ´t +which+they

IDIOLECT-individual way of speaking, can me modified through the life, in USA there are 3main regional variants(southern, eastern,midland)-Black, HispanicE.

Pidgin English -from Chinese Pigin=business, used by some trade purpose, standard E.mixed with dialects on some territory, contact language, created usually spontaneously out of a mixture of other l. for comm. between diff. nations , used by those neighbouring countries as a common l.(some pacific islands), originally the name given to a Chinese-E.-Portuguese pidgin used for commerce in Canton during 18&19, when it became the first or principal language on a territory it is name Creole

LANGUAGE REGISTER -can be defined as a set of gestures of speech which is typical of a given style & field & is characteristic of people working in this field

-economy, linguistic, journalism, medicine, law-each of them uses diff.style & vocabulary

Distinctive value-the meaning of value of the language unit is given by its opposition by another unit, so words are in oppositions that give the meaning of it (small/big, light/darkness)

Signifiant=form of the word, it signifies the signifie.

Signifie= what the word represents, the sound form which signifizes the signifiant.

The relationship between them is arbitrary-the same concept can be associated with different sounds.

Syllable-smallest significant unit  

Morphem-smallest meaningful unit.

Phonem-smallest meaningless unit .

Also mono-morphematic words which correspondent to single morpheme.

SIGNS AND THEIR REALATIONS

Types-stand for general categories of things.

Tokens-respresent particular examples of type

General class.:

SIGNAL-supposed to be followed by action or process symptoms(green after red) SYMPTOMS-signified some circumstance or state (smoke is the symptom of fire) SYMBOLS-typical features of the entities or phenomena, in HL the symbols are conventional expressive meanings (anchor represents hope)

CH.PIERCE-symbols+indexes+icons-describe some properties of the entity, in HL onomatopoeia words, very abstract, similar to the signified object(photograph, diagram)

Ling.Signs-are characteristic of conventionality and arbitrariness (no direct relationship)-words, phrases, sentences, morphemes

2 THEORIES:

1.unilateral-sign is represented only by its form, the meaning is outside

2.bilateral-considering sign as an object having form and meaning

SAUSSURE-the sign consists of:

1.acoustic image=signifiat(ps.trace of sound that reflects itself I the human conscience and is joined with the concept)

2.concept = signifié(sort of thought, of an idea, It is a form of thinking expressing general properties of the phenomena of the extra linguistic reality. It organises other knowledge of the object on the ground of categorisation based on 2 principles:

a) principle of identity

b) principle of equivalence

TYPES OF REALTIONSHIPS BETWEEN SIGNS

syntagma (any connection of at least 2 words on a linear level, they mutually influence each other)

paradigmatic (if 2 words are replaceable, mutually changeable in the sentence, they occur in model or paradigmatic relationship)+express the relationship between sign and sign user, what we mean by using a given linguistic sign -  

(synonymy/ antonymy/ hyponymy/ polysemy/ homonymy--homographs+homophones+ homonyms proper)

Polysemy – occurs between various meanings of a word, a word has several meanings ad the relationship is between semantic words=semena (head–part of a body-principal meaning+head of something-head master)

PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

Phonology-deals with abstract idealised sounds, with systemic sounds we have in mind, with some psychical traces of sounds (mentalistic study)

Phonetics-deals with physical signs, how we articulate and produce physical sounds, how sound is produced, how the air stream is phoned out from the lungs into the trachea then into the larynges in which there are vocal chords-2 muscles opening or spreading apart of closing / according to their position they vibrate or not.

DIFFERENCES IN PRONOUNCIATION

CONSONANTS = sounds that are produced by obstruction in the vocal area

Consonants are:

1.bilabioals-produced by both lips

2.dentals – formed by the tip of the tongue which is between the teeth or behind the upper teeth

3.labial-dentals-result from the position of lower lip that leans against the upper teeth

4.alreolars-produced with the front part of the tongue

5.palatals-typical for Slovak (ď,ť,ň), in English J (young)

6.alreopalatals-formed with the tongue that is in the front of the hard palate / 7.velars-result from the tongue back against the velar

8.glottal sound – narrow opening between 2 muscles is gottis, produced when tongue and other parts of the mouth are inactive and the air stream passes freely through the glottis but vocal chords vibrate

Consonants can be classified according to the following criteria:

– place of articulation = relative position of 2 movable parts(A) or a movable and a fixed part(P)

– voicing = voiceless – vocal chords don´t vibrate + voiced – vocal chords vibrate

– manner of articulation = kind of stricture

Various types of sounds according to the manner of articulation:

1.plosives-complete closure of part of the respiratory tract and behind the place of closure air pressure builds up and is released explosively when the respiratory tract is opened

2.affricates-copmlete closure of part of the mouth and behind the place of closure air pressure builds up. Slow release of the pressure causes friction by the air-stream

3.nasals-complete closure of the mouth with the soft palate lowered so that the air-stream find a passage through the nose

4.fricatives-near closure of 2 organs so that when the air-stream passes through it causes friction

5.laterals-partial closure in the mouth, the tongue against the hard palate and the air-stream escapes on one or both sides of the point of contact

6.flap-short contact of a flexible part onAfirmOneAsOfTheBladeOfTheTongueOnTheAlveolarRidge

7.roll-a series of taps made by a flexible part on a firm one

8.glottal stop – the obstruction to the air-stream I formed by the closure of the vocal cords, thereby interrupting the passage of air into into supra-glottal organs. The air pressure below the glottis is realses by the sudden separation of the vocal cords.

VOWELS = are usually described base on a frame of reference called

Cardinal Vowel Scheme.

The system represents standard reference points for identifying vowels based on tongue position along 2 dimensions: open vs. close and front vs. back. A given point corresponds roughly to the position in the mouth of the highest point of the tongue in the production of that vowel. At the same time, the vowels correspond to the greatest articulatory effort necessary for their articulation. CV are not sound of any particular language, they are artificial constructs.

All English Vowels are voiced.

Classification:

a) duration of the sound: opposition short – long

b) kind of opening made by the lips: spread – neutral – rounded

c) position of the highest part of the tongue: high-low, and front-central-back.

V. modifications: diff. in tension + diff. in length

Diphtong-combination of 2 vowels produced one immediately after the other with no intervening stopping of the air-stream and the 2 sounds, as it were, glide into each other. In E. the glide always falls away form the first of the pair to the second.

E. D. are: [ei] [əu] [ai] [au] = centring dipthongs in regard to the direction of their movement and  [єə] [iə] [uə] = closing dipthongs because they end with a glide towards a closer vowel

Tripthongs-a glide form one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption. It can be looked on as a being composed of the five closing diphthongs with ə added at the end. Tripthongs are the most complex E. sounds of the vowel type.

English distinguishes the following tripthongs: ai / iə / au / əu + ə

M=Nasal + Bilabial

Allophone-a variation in the way any phoneme is realized in actual speech, the manifestation of a phoneme.The features which are common for all allophones of one and the same phoneme and which allow to distinguish it from all others are called distinctive features.