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SYNTAX - skompletizované prednášky z celého semestra (Lojová) (syntax_-_prednasky_cele.doc)

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CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

 

 

WHAT IS A SENTENCE - Quirk 204, Rafajlovičová kap.3

 

 

BY STRUCTURE

 

  1. simple sentence - jednoduchá veta

 

  1. multiple sentence - súvetie

 

  1. compound - priraďovacie
  2. complex - podraďovacie

 more than 2 clauses in a sentence

  1. complex-compound
  2. compound-complex

c

b

a

 

 

 

 

               complex-compound sentence

 

 

BY FUNCTION

 

- each form might have different functions

 

FUNCTIONS used for:

FORM:

 

                                

 

1.) declarative (oznamovacia)        -        for statements

 

2.) interrogative (opytovacia)        -        for questions

 

3.) imperative (rozkazovacia)        -        for directives

 

4.) exclamative (zvolacia)                -        for exclamations

 

5.) irregular sentences                 -        have more functions

 

 

SPEECH ACTS

 

  1. locutionary acts (force) = lexical meaning, the fact
  2. illocutionary acts = what I mean, my intention, it is about the speaker
  3. perelocutionary acts = how it is received, it is about the receiver

 

pragmatic meaning - communicative purpose - effect

language functions (illocutionary)

 

 

SYNTACTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF CLAUSE ELEMENTS

 

  1. syntactic features of subject, verb, object, ….
  2. NAŠTUDOVAŤ - Quirk 2007

 

 

 

ADVERBIALS

 

príslovkové určenie

 

FEATURES:

 

  1. it is always and AdvP, PP, Clause or NP

 

  1. it is independent of a VP

 

  1. they are optional - apart from SVA, SVOA - we can add as many we want

 

  1. they might have a mobile position - initial, middle or end position

for example “yesterday” - can be in the beginning or at the end of a sentence

 

  1. we might have various numbers of them in 1 sentence

 

  1. many semantic meanings - Adjuncts

 

  1. time - location, duration, frequency
  2. place - position, direction
  3. manner
  4. reason
  5. purpose
  6. result
  7. condition, concession

 

 

GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBIALS:

 

                                        disjuncts

 

                                             

            conjuncts        sentence       adjuncts

                                             

                                       

                                        subjuncts

 

 

 

CVIČENIA K DNEŠNEJ PREDNÁŠKE:

 

    Chalker: 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98

    Closea: 103

 

 

 

ADJUNCTS - príslovkové určenie

 

 

CONJUNCTS         - are in the beginning of the sentence

        - they are adverbials that connect

        - linkers, discourse workers

        - to connect the sentence

        - however, nevertheless

 

 

SUBJUNCTS        - less important

        - we can drop them

        - we can delete them

        - yet, already, ever, never, still

 

 

DISJUNCTS        - more important that the whole sentence

        - my own opinion (my comment)

        - as far as I know, in my opinion, as for me, from my point of view,

          in my own knowledge

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SEMANTIC ROLES OF CLAUSE ELEMENTS

 

 

  1. agentive position  (Subject) - actively involved

 

  1. affected position (Object direct) - affected by activity

 

  1. recipient position (Object indirect) - passively   (I gave him a book)

 

  1. attribute position (Complements) - giving, description

 

  1. identification (She is a student)
  2. qualification (She is beautiful)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CLAUSE TYPES

NAŠTUDOVAŤ Z QUIRKA

 

 

word order S-V-O is fixed because there are no infections, no suffixes

    (Peter killed Paul or Paul killed Peter - it is important)

 

 

  1. SV (intransitive) - She is crying

obligatory

clause

elements

  1. SVO (monotransitive) - I saw him
  2. SVCs (copular, linking verb) - She is tall
  3. SVOiOd (ditransitive) - I gave him a book
  4. SVOdCo (complex transitive) - I find English grammar easy
  5. SVA (copular verb) - He was there
  6. SVOA (complex transitive) - I put it on the table

 

optional

clause

elements

 

 

 

ADVERBIALS

 

 

 

 

He was flying a plane = pilotoval (mono transitive)

 

 

He was flying a plane

 

He was flying = lietal (intrasitive)

 

 

 

 

 

TO GET - may pass to all the 7 examples

 

        SV                -        She´s getting up

        SVO                 -        I got it

        SVCs                -        I got tired

        SVOiOd        -        I got him a present

        SVOdCo

        SVA

        SVOA

        

 

identify the clause type --- active sentence

 

The building was reconstructed They reconstructed the building yesterday (SVO)

we have to make intransitive sentence ! ! !

 

 

 

 

WORD ORDER - VARIATION OF CLAUSE TYPES

 

 

INVERSION  (the change of Subject and Verb)

   

  1. questions
  2. so, neither, no

 

So am I.

Neither am I.

 

  1. negative element fronted

 

Never have I seen him. it’s about emphasizing

Never did I go there.

 

  1. conditional

 

Had I been there.

Should you find him, let me know.

Were you to find him, he would come (keby náhodou)

 

 

FRONTING

 

  1. emphasis (contextually)

 

        I don´t like this book This book I don´t like any close element we want to  

                                                                                 emphasize we can put in front

 

  1. Subject - Verb inversion / SVC, SVA

 

She became an excellent student An excellent student she become.

Here is the book   Here the book is.

 

 

        this is very frequent

 

  1. Passive

 

The window was broken.

 

 

EXISTENTIONAL “THERE”

 

        There are many students in the class.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EXTRA POSITION - anticipatory “IT”/ dummy “IT” & postponed “S”

 

 

        It’s raining - dummy IT

 

        It is difficult to complete the exercise

 

        It is difficult to work with you

THE RULE - personal is preffered

You are difficult to work with

To work with you is difficult

 

 

PASSIVE

 

        He was given a book

 

 

 

ELLIPSES (dropping, omitting - zamlčaný podmet)

 

        Sorry.

        Thank you.

 

 

 

CLOVTING (rozťať, rozštiepiť vetu)

 

 

        I like Marry Brown Who I like is Marry Brown

 

 

 

 

it is about emphasis

 

        Marry missed the class It was Marry who missed the class

                                        Who missed the class was Marry

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CONCORD

 

ide o gramatickú zhodu v osobe, čísle, čase

 

 

GRAMMATICAL CONCORD

 

  1. when grammatical forms say which form is to use (she goes)
  1. if a subject is in Singular, then the verb is in Singular, too
  2. when the subject is expressed by a clause, the verb is in Singular

 

what you said  is …

 

    clause         verb

 

 

  1. when the subject is expressed by a prepositional phrase, the verb is in Singular

 

in the morning   is when the sun rises

        

        PP           verb

 

 

  1. when the subject is expressed as an adverb, usually the finite verb takes Singular

 

yesterday   is what we are talking about

 

             

 

                                                                                                                                                            adverb                        verb

 

 

  1. when the Subject is a noun that takes irregular Singular forms, the verb is in Singular

BUT

 

news   is ……            the sheep   is …

 

        Sg.     Sg.                                                         Pl.          Pl.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NOTIONAL CONCORD

 

  1. not about the grammatical meaning, but about the meaning, the semantics
  2. sometimes the form of the verb depends on the meaning

 

Government is doing …  = grammatical

Government are doing…= notional

 

 

 

 

 

NOUN - has a Singular form, but the meaning is Plural

                     - it is not about the grammatical form, but the idea is important here

 

 

  1. usually most collective nouns are used in Singular, about 10% are in Plural

 

Police is powerful    = institution

My family are crazy = members

 

 

  1. but this is not necessarily - e.g. names in Singular

 

Great Expectation is a great book.

The Bahamas is a beautiful country.

 

 

PROXIMITY CONCORD = blízkosť

 

  1. the form of a verb phrase depends on the word, usually a noun, that is closer
  2. usually in a longer sentences or noun phrases, it is much more natural - too far

 

one in 10 students are… = according to proximity

one in 10 students are… = according to notional concord

one in 10 students is ….. = according to grammatical concord

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

OTHER TYPES OF CONCORD

 

a) coordinate Subject (viacnásobný podmet) - usually takes a Plural form (you and I)

 

 

   - apart from this is when the Subject is notionally Singular, but grammatically Plural

   - used often in legal language

 

The student sitting here and the best student in this classroom is 25 - 1 person presented in 2 ways

 

        BUT

 

My brother and the Slovak champion is supposed given a million crowns - 1 person becomes 1 million

My brother and the Slovak champion are supposed give a million crowns - 2 persons become 500 000

 

 

b) either-or / neither-nor

 

  - either-or = is - when talking about 1 person (either Peter or John)

  - neither-nor = are - when talking about 2 persons (neither Peter nor John)

  - if there is Singural + Plural - the form depends on the second one

 

 

c) indefinite expression (somebody, everybody, anybody, nobody)

 

  - indefinite pronouns usually takes Singular form

 

 

d) concord between Subject and Subject complement  

 

    Clever students in my classroom is my dream - combination of Singular and Plural

 

 

e) concord between Object and Object complement

 

    I find my students are clever

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DEFINITE EXCEPTIONS

 

    A number of students are sitting here.                                 A number of students is increasing.

 

 

 

 

 

 

         

       quantifier                                                                  Subject or a head of a NP

 

 

 

    Two slices of bread are for you.                                           Two slices of bread were too thin.

 

   

     quantifier                                                                      Subject or a head of a NP

 

 

 

INDEFINITE EXCEPTIONS

 

  1. gender free language
  2. we use Plural forms instead of his or hers

 

     It is the end of the lesson and anybody should take their things away.

 

 

        

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NEGATION

 

  1. how to negate a sentence
  2. normally there is only one negative element in an English sentence
  3. two negative elements negate one each other
  4. singer and poets don’t care of grammar rules
  5. Afro-American English allows as many negations as possible (the same in Slovak)
  6. but in standard British English there is just one negation

 

 

I don’t think he likes me this is more native, sound more native like

 

I think he doesn’t like me this is also right, but a native speaker wouldn’t say it so

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HOW CAN A SENTENCE BE NEGATED

 

 

THROUGH VERB NEGATION

 

  1. the uses of operators can / can’t
  2. if there is no operator, we must ad Do / DON’T
  3. often the use of contraction

 

I haven’t done it standard

 

        I have not done it if we want to emphasize, we say it all

 

 

THROUGH WORDS NEGATIVE IN FORM AND MEANING

 

  1. never
  2. no
  3. nobody
  4. nowhere
  5. nothing

 

 

THROUGH WORDS NEGATIVE IN MEANING BUT NOT IN FORM

 

  1. grammatically the behave as negative elements, but the form itself must not be negative
  2. hardly, barely, seldom, a little, scarcely, not quite, only just, few

 

  1. we can’t use any other negative element with them

You can hardly do that neither can I.

 

  1. uses in question tags

You can hardly do that, can you?

 

 

OTHER NEGATIVE WORDS

 

  1. they are negative semantically, but not grammatically
  2. they are negative in meaning
  3. to refuse, to deny, unhappy

 

She is unhappy, isn’t she? semantically negative, not grammatically

 

 

NON-ASSERTIVE ITEMS

 

  1. they have to be adapted to the meaning in a given context
  2. somebody, anybody, at all

 

 

 

 

 

SCOPE OF NEGATION

 

- the range (rozsah) of negation

 

  1. normally the scope is a sentence, when there is a negative element

 

I wasn’t listening all the time

 

 wasn’t listening all the time = I was sleeping all the time

 

 

  1. sometimes the scope is just a part, not the whole sentence

 

I wasn’t listening all the time

        

          wasn´t listening = I was listening just time and again, at the beginning and at the end

 

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 

I don’t like all the students.

 

  1. I don’t like any students
  2. I don’t like the students we are talking about (in one group)

 

 

ADJUNCT - time adjunct - usually it’s this - that helps us to limit the scope (all the time)

 

 

I wasn’t listening to some of you presentation there might be an ambiguity

 

  1. some I was, some I wasn’t
  2. I wasn’t listening at all

 

 

You are not allowed to use all of my books the right scope of neg. we know from the context

 

  1. you are allowed to use some
  2. you are not allowed to use any of them

 

 

FOCUS OF NEGATION

 

 

- we might emphasize just one negative element from the sentence

 

I didn’t take John to swim in the pool today.

 

I didn’t take John - but I took Mike

I didn’t take John to swim - but I took him to basketball

I didn’t take John to swim in the pool today - but I took him yesterday

I didn’t take John at all

 

LOCAL NEGATION

 

- not the whole sentence is negated, just a part of it

 

I saw him not long ago.      not long ago = adjunct - time

   

      this is a positive sentence

 

   

                       I saw him recently

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 

She lives not too far from here not too far = adjunct - place

She lives near by

 

 

I read a not very interesting book not very interesting book = noun phrase

 

      It was quite interesting

 

 

NEGATION OF MODAL AUXILIARIES

 

- the auxiliary verbs are negated by adding NOT after them (You mustn’t come / She will not come)

- in a modal verb phrase the negation element is between the modal and the verb

 

        You may not listen to me 1 sentence / more meanings

 

  1. smieš ma nepočúvať - deontic meaning (may not)
  2. možno ma nepočúva - epistemic (not listen)

 

 

when two negative elements do not negate each other

 

  1. normally if we have 2 negatvie elements in 1 sentence they negate each other and the meaning is than positive - but no always

 

She is not unhappy

 

  1. she is happy
  2. she isn’t unhappy, but she must not be happy

 

 

INVERSION IN NEGATIVE SENTENCES

 

 

  1. if we put a negative element in the front of the sentence, we have to change the word order of an interrogative sentence

 

Never did I read the book.

 

Never have I read the book.

 

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

 

0, 1st, 2nd, 3rd conditional

 

Mixed conditionals - very common

past

 

                                

present

 

past

future

         

 

 

If you had bought a ticket, you could go tomorrow. second conditional about present and future

 

 

future

past

 

 

 

 

3rd conditional

might

should

If I had known it, I could explain it. second conditional about present and future

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Happen to = inversion

 

   “keby náhodou” - If you happen to find my bag, let me know.

 

 

 

 

 

1st conditional

 

 

 

        If I find your bag, I’ll give it to you

        If I happen to find your bag, I’ll give it to you.

        If I should find your bag, I’ll give it to you.

        Should I find your bag, I’ll give it to you. very frequent in formal letters

 

 

 

 

2nd conditional

 

 

 

 

        If I found your bag, I would give it to you.

        If I happened to find your bag, I would give it to you.

        If I were to find your bag, I would give it to you.

        Were I to find your bag, I would give it to you.

 

 

 

 

3rd conditional

 

 

 

 

        If I had found your bag, I would have told you.

        Had I found your bag, I would have told you.

 

 

 

will, would - in conditional clauses

 

    WILL - in 1st conditional

    WOULD - in 2nd conditional

 

 

special meanings

 

  1. willingness (volition / refuse) - unstressed, contracted

 

If you’ll do the room, I’ll wash up  

 

 

ak si ochotný mi pomôcť

 

 

  1. insistence - stressed, not contracted

 

If you will smoke, you will die.

 

 

  1. more polite, formal

 

If you would help me, we could succeed.

 

 

  1. present predictability of the statement in the “if” sentence

 

If the party will end before midnight, it’s time to start enjoying ourselves more.

 

 

OTHER INDICATORS OF CONDITIONING

 

  1. as / so long as…
  2. provided / -ing …
  3. suppose / -ing…
  4. in case
  5. if only
  6. unless (negative meaning)

 

 

CONDITIONAL MEANING EXPRESSED DIFFERENTLY  

 

  1. otherwise
  2. and
  3. or

 

 

forma “NEBYŤ TEBA”

 

    If it hadn’t been for John, we would have died.

    But for John, we would have died.

 

    But for you = nebyť teba

 

 

 

 

COMPLEX SENTENCE

(podraďovacie súvetie)

 

  1. the sentence, that consists of 2 or more clauses that are in a relationship

of subordination and superordination

  1. on main clause = independent clause
  2. hierarchy of clauses plays here an important role

 

 

CLAUSE TYPES

 

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE (main, matrix, superordined clause)

 

  1. hlavná veta
  2. the main feature is that if may stand on its own

 

-        as soon as we have an embedded clause = matrix clause

-        as soon as we have subordinate clause = main clause

 

 

        Peter bought a book that he wanted        SVO = main clause

 

        Peter bought a book = main clause / it can stand on its own / the other can be dropped

        a book that he wanted = object direct

        

 

        What I like is watching TV.         SVCs = matrix clause (just a pattern)

 

        what I like = 1. clause / subject / embedded clause

        is = 2. clause  / verb

        watching TV = 3. clause / subject complement / embedded clause / verb phrase

 

 

        She came home when I was sleeping.        SVA = main clause

        

        she = subject

        came = verb

        home = adverbial

        when I was sleeping = adverbial / subordinate clause / adverbial clause / optional - it can be dropped

        

 

                

MAIN CLAUSE - can stand on its own when the subordinate clause is deleted

 

MATRIX CLAUSE         - always looks like a pattern

        - subject complement is expressed by an embedded clause

 

        

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DEPENDENT CLAUSE

 

  1. embedded clause (S / Oi / Od / Cs / Co)

 

- those clauses that function as the whole clause element

 

        She said that she was coming.

 

 

        clause, clause element, Od

 

- if it is an embedded clause, we can always replace it by 1 word

 

- embedded clauses function as obligatory clause elements in clause types SVA, SVOA

 

        I put the book where it supposes to be.

 

 

        when Adverbial is an obligatory element embedded clause

        because it must be in the sentence

 

 

  1. subordinate clause (A / part of a clause element)

 

- those clauses that function as an adverbial or a part of the clause element

 

        The girl, who is sitting next to me, is a good student.

 

 

            subordinate clause

 

- subordinate clauses are not obligatory

 

 

 

 

Peter bought a book.

 

Peter = subject

bought = verb

a book = object direct

 

 

Peter bought a book that he wanted.

 

Peter = subject

bought = verb

a book that he wanted = object direct expressed by a noun phrase

that he wanted = subordinate clause / just a part of the NP / functions as a post modifier in a NP

 

 

Peter bought what he wanted.

 

Peter = subject

bought = verb

what he wanted = object direct / dependent clause functioning as and object direct / embedded clause

 

 

Whoever comes late can’t enter the classroom.

 

Whoever comes late = subject / embedded clause

can’t enter = verb

the classroom = object direct

 

I am explaining the grammar that you don’t understand.

I am explaining the grammar = subordinate clause

that you don’t understand = functions as a part of object direct / expressed by 1 NP / a post modifier in a NP

 

 

We are talking about what you like.

what you like = embedded clause / functions as an object direct

 

 

When I came home nobody was there

when I came home = subordinate clause / adverbial

 

 

She said that she was tired.

that she was tired = embedded clause

SVO = matrix clause where an Od is expressed by an embedded clause

 

 

I gave her what she wanted

what she wanted = matrix clause / embedded clause

 

        

The girl who is here is very nice

who is here = subordinate clause / SVC / main clause

 

I gave her the book that she wanted.

I gave her the book = main clause

that she wanted = subordinate clause

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENT SENTENCES

 

according to the structure THEY ARE:

 

  1. Finite - with finite verb phrase - identific grammatical categories

 

I came home when my mother was washing-up.  (1st person Singular)

 

 

  1. Non-finite - ing / ed / to inf. / bare inf. --- with S or without S

 

  1. ing  -  Working is difficult  /  Speaking English is easy
  2. ed  -  Supported by her parents she could study
  3. to -  To study English you need to be patient

               To work with you is difficult

               I´d like to work

               I want to sleep (dependent non-finite)

 

                     I want him to go home.

                     I = subject

                     want = verb

                     him = subject

                      him to go home = Od expressed by clause element

 

  1. bare inf.  -  Make him go  /  Let me go  /  Have him do that  / I saw him walk

 

 

I asked him to go home.

I = subject

asked = ditransitive verb

him = object indirect

to go home = without subject

 

 

He told me to come.

he = subject

told = ditransitive verb

me = object indirect

to come = object direct

 

 

  1. Verbless         - without a verb

        - each clause must have a verb, but it can be ellipted

        - usually it is a subject

 

I am sorry  Sorry!

I will come if it is possible    I will come if possible

She did it as she usually does    She did it as usually

If she is black or white I like her anyway    Black or white, I like her anyway

When I am without him, I can’t go home    Without him, I can’t go home

When she is too tired, she can’t concentrate   Too tired, she can’t concentrate  

 

according to the SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS THEY FUNCTION AS:

 

 

a) Any clause element   (S, Oi, Od, Cs, Co, A)

 

S What I like about her is her smile

Od I want him to go home

Oi I gave him a book  /  I gave whoever asked me a book    clause

Cs She is a student  /  She is who you are looking for    clause

Co I will make you good grammarians  /  I make you what you definitely want to be    clause

A The book is where I put it  /  The book is where it belong    clause

 

b) Part of a clause element

 

  1. post modifier in NP (most frequent)

 

She is the one (that) I love  /  Pass me the book (that) I gave you

 

 

  1. prepositional complement

 

We were talking about what you suggested  / I will discuss it with whoever comes

 

 

  1. adjectival complement  (adjectives that requires complement)

 

I’m happy to be here

 

I’m sad that you don’t know

 

It is nice to be here

 

You are likely to come

 

 

  1. apposition

 

My brother, who is now in England, is eighteen

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

according to the SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS THEY FUNCTION AS:

 

a) Nominal clause  

 

  1. that clause
  2. WH-interrogative clause
  3. nominal relative clause
  4. YES/NO interrogative clause (if, whether)
  5. exclamative clause
  6. non-finite clause (ing  /  to inf.  /  bare inf.)

 

 

b) Adverbial  

 

  1. time
  2. place
  3. manner
  4. condition
  5. reason
  6. result

 

 

c) Relative   (that, who, which, whose)

 

  1. defining (restructive)   My brother, that one who is in London, is eighteen
  2. non-defining (nonrestructive)   My brother, who is in London, is eighteen
  3. sentencial  

 

 

d) Comparative  (than, as…as, the same as)

 

        He is stronger than I used to be

        He is taller than my brother used to be

        She is as clever as I am

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

 

  1. z Quirka netreba Subclassification, netreba to tak detailne vedieť
  2. stačí vedieť identifikovať základné veci + uviesť príklady

 

 

→ they mainly function as adjuncts or disjuncts (some of them)

→ disjuncts = prezentujem svoj vlastný názor

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

- clauses functioning as disjuncts

 

As far as I am concerned

As far as I know

 

 

→ they are classified according to their semantic meaning

→ sometimes they combine meaning

 

Walking in the streets I came across my friend.

 

 

         adverbial

of place / time / manner

 

 

→ most frequent used adverbials are those of time and manner

 

 

        

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

classification according to the semantic meaning

 

1.) Adverbial clauses of time

 

  1. location (WHEN) - I was there when my grandmother died
  2. duration (HOW LONG) - I was watching TV while she was cooking
  3. frequency (HOW OFTEN) - I ask questions as often as it is possible

 

 

2.) Adverbial clauses of place

 

  1. position (WHERE) - The book is where I put it
  2. direction (WHERE TO) - Go where you suppose to be

 

 

3.) Adverbial clauses of manner

 

  1. manner (HOW) - Do it as I told you

 

 

4.) Adverbial clauses of condition

 

  1. condition (IF) - If I was you, I wouldn’t do it

 

 

5.) Adverbial clauses of concession

 

  1. concession (ALTHOUGH) - Although I trust him, he is still suspicious

 

 

6.) Adverbial clauses of contrast

        

  1. contrast (WHILE, WHEREAS) - While he is self-confident, I’m not

 

 

7.) Adverbial clauses of reason

 

  1. why (BECAUSE, FOR) - She doesn’t want me because I’m ugly

 

 

8.) Adverbial clauses of purpose

 

  1. what for (IN ORDER TO, SO THAT, TO)         - You came here to study English

 

                - You came here so that you could study English

9.) Adverbial clauses of result

 

  1. consequence (SO, SO THAT) - You studied hard, so you passed the exam

 

 

10.) Adverbial clauses of comment - DISJUNCT

 

 

11.) Adverbial clauses of reporting - AS HE SAID

 

 

12.) Lot of other types of clauses in subclassification in Quirk (netreba vedieť)

NOMINAL CLAUSES

 

 

  1. the same function in a sentence as nouns
  2. dá sa nahradiť navzájom jedno za druhé jedným slovom
  3. has the same semantic function as the noun phrase

 

 

  1. Nominal THAT clause

 

  He said that I could go home

 

 

 

           He said something we can replace it by 1 word

 

 

  1. Nominal WH - interrogative clause

 

   She asked me what I was going to do / how to behave

 

 

 

She asked me something

 

 

  1. Nominal relative clause - similar to WH - interrogative clause, but different in meaning

 

 

 

  1. Nominal YES & NO interrogative clause - introduced by IF or WHETER

 

She asked me if I loved her.

Do you love me? YES / NO

 

 

 

  1. Nominal exclamative clause

 

How beautiful she is!

I’m thinking about how beautiful she is

 

 

 

  1. Nominal non-finite clauses

 

  1. - ing (gerund) - I like playing football I like something  /  Speaking English is easy
  2. - to inf. - I’d like to play football  / I want to go home
  3. - bare inf. - I let you cook the dinner  /  I saw him cry

                    make

                have

                    help

 

 

 

BREAKING DOWN THE SENTENCE

 

 

sitting in a bar I heard that you were a student

 

 

sitting in a bar         - dependant clause I.

        - adverbial

        - non-finite adverbial

 

I heard that you were a student         - dependent clause II.

        - matrix clause SVO

        - the Od is expressed as dependant clause

 

I - subject

 

heard - verb

 

that you were a student - Od

 

 

  1. Dependant clause I.         - according to the structure it is non-finite  -ing clause

        - syntactically it functions as adverbial

        - semantically it functions as adverbial of time / or place / or manner

 

  1. Dependant clause II.        - structurally it is a finite clause

        - syntactically it is an Od

        - semantically it is a nominal THAT clause

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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