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TEÓRIA PREKLADU A TLMOČENIA ANGLICKÉHO JAZYKA I.

TRANSLATION

- refers to the general subject field (in general), to the text that have been translated (product)

 and the act of translating (process)

- it is the transfer of the original meaning into the new one taking in the consideration

 of socio-cultural facts

- it is a science - it is a part of a system with its own subject, definition and goals

- it is a skill - not everybody is able to do it, appropriate usage, enough talent, simply to know how

- it is an art - we need creativity (advertisement, artistic translation)

- it is a matter of taste - it reflexes individual preferences, two persons will translate the same different

- translation studies focus on general theoretical questions, special problems, practise, criticism,

 translator training

- it may be divided into theoretical theory of translations and applied theory of translation

TRANSLATION STUDIES

 General theories of translation

 Studies of special disciplines of translation

1. study of special language text translation

(technical texts / technický v užšom, odborný v širšom slova zmysle /

natural science texts, administrative and legal texts)

2. study of literary text translation

(poetry, fiction, drama, film)

3. study of general information & advertising text

(journalistic, text of newspapers, advertisement, PR)

4. study of translation for electronic media

 Applied translation studies (praxeology of translation)

1. it deals with tools we use in translation -  translation aids, dictionaries
2. it deals with criticism of translation
3. it deals with translators training - translation pedagogy (didactics of interpreting)
4. sociological and editorial aspects

Translation studies are based on general and applied studies, history and literary studies,

theory of communication, semiotics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, cultural and area studies, pragmatics and special subjects dealing with terminology

1. subject oriented

zamerané na hotový preklad

2. product oriented
3. process oriented
4. function oriented

HISTORY OF TRANSLATION

Translation has a long history. In Roman times they translated certain things, the Bible was translated by King James from Latin to Latin, later to old English. In fact as a science it begin only in the 2nd half of the 20th century when they began to study translation.

1. linguistic approach         - it was the first approach

        - they understand translation only as a linguistic process, they don’t pay attention

          to anything else

        - translation is based on linguistics and on language, but only that - it is a  

     problem of customs, traditions, culture (e.g. “dobrú chuť”)

        - they stress only the language

        - they look at it as translation of individual units

        - based on original language

2. descriptive approaches        - they stressed the description of the target language and equivalence was

          understood as an empirical phenomena

        - it was just what exists concrete, in reality, not something abstract

3. functional approaches         - especially spread in German speaking countries

        - determined by purpose

        - the action of translating as the fact that it is determined by function

        - it is important who is going to read it and what function has the translation

        - they were interested in text types and translation strategy

        - they choose strategy according to the text type  

        - e.g. Gulliver’s travels - today function for children, in the past satirical

4. cultural approach        - different habits, they looked also on the pragmatic side

        - interested no only in the language but also in culture.

        - by culture they mean the way of life (socio, eco, political ways together)

5. integrated (interdisciplinary) approaches         - these approaches try to bridge the gap between the  

          linguistics and cultural approaches

SOME NAMES IN ENGLISH TRANSLATION STUDY

John Catford         - “Linguistic theory of translation” (first publication about translation)

        - in his approach translation is understood only as a linguistic phenomenon

- he understood translation as the replacement of textual material in one  

 language by equivalent textual material in another language

- he understood by an equivalent only what is a real equivalent

 (e.g. student = študent  BUT  what´s the time = koľko je hodín)

- he defined equivalence in translation in terms of:

1. extend - rozsah
2. level - úroveň (lexikálna, gramatická)
3. rank - hierarchical arrangement of several units (morféma, fonéma, slovo)

EXTEND

- he distinguished between full and partial translation

1. full translation - every part is replaced (this house is small = tento dom je malý)
2. partial translation - only some parts are translated, other are simply transferred                                

                                   (she likes pop music = má rada pop music)

LEVELS

- he distinguished between total and restricted translation

1. total translation - all levels are replaced - grammar, vocabulary, phonology is replaced  

                        (Peter went to school = Peter išiel do školy)

2. restricted translation - only one or two  levels are translated, but not all

                    (Bratislava = Bratisla:va - phonological translation)

“I am reading a book”

→ Lexical translation = som čítajúci knihu

→ Grammatical translation = čítam  

RANK

- he distinguished between rank-bound and unbounded translation

3. rank bound translation - here we always select he equivalent at the same rank

                                      (word for word / sentence for sentence)

4. unbounded translation - here we shift from one rank onto another

→ Catford was the first who used the term SHIFT = if you do any change from the literary original

    (if you omit something or if you add something - it is a shift)

TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING

5. T. & I. are 2 different but language related skills
6. T. is a written activity
7. I. is an oral activity

Interpreting is the transforming of texts from the source language to the native or another language.

In the beginning is the perception, than the decoding, then keep it in memory for some short                          period = storing and at the end recoding.

Interpreting consists of several activities, they occur almost at the same time, they have certain tendencies to interfere and the ability to interpret is to find a fluent transition between them.

PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETING

1. you need good knowledge of both languages, subject matter, extra linguistic factors and individual skills play also an important role
2. as skills you need a relatively fast thinking and reaction, because you are pressed for time - you need short term memory
3. than there can occur what we call interference

1. retroactive interference - it means that you are listening on one side, but at the same time

                                             you have to speak what you hear

2. interference caused by outer surroundings
3. interference caused by physiological influencing - e.g. when you are thirsty

1. there is a fact called reorientation = shift from one language into an other

Interpreting is never complete. Even the best interpreters cover around 80% of the text or speech.

Interpreting is a skill - you need to practice. You need the ability to anticipate (schopnosť predvídať)

but only if you know the subject - you have to know certain words from what you are going to interpret.

You need the ability to short cut - use short constructions.

You have to take notes - use shorthand (tesnopis) .

types of interpreting

 Consecutive interpreting

8. it is the oral transference of the content of the source language in the target language as a whole or a part of the text is spoken and then comes interpreting
9. there are modifications of this consecutive interpreting - e.g. tourist or guide interpreting

 Simultaneous interpreting

10. it is a special type, in which information is interpreted at the same time
11. the speaker is speaking in English, you are speaking in Slovak - you need to be in contact with the speaker and listen. This is difficult, because there is no pause, there is the pressure of time, her you need fast thinking and reactions

1. booth simultaneous interpreting (kabínkové) - there are 2 people, one can take over, it is very

                                                                              demanding but very well paid

2. whispering simultaneous interpreting

 Relay interpreting - there are more stations - more languages  

 Sight interpreting - interpreting from written text

LANGUAGE, COMMUNICATION AND TRANSLATION

Language - its main function is communication, it is a system of signs, they convey certain messages

The main scheme is that there is a sender - a message - a receiver.

Object of information - extra linguistic reality.

Translation is a certain act of communication. The process of translation begins with the reception of an original text or the source text or source language and ends with its conversion (reproduction) into a new text - the target text (target language).

The translator plays a double role in relation - to the source text he is a receiver, in relation to the reader he is the author of the new text.

The communication is successful if the message (information) on the receiver’s end is the same as the original sender’s information. The translator’s task is to decode the original information and reproduce it by means of the target language. These target language means may not necessarily be in agreement with the source language. E.g. “Hi, ducks” - v angličtine pozitívne oslovenie, v slovenčine negatívne.

Reproduction of the particular information is complicated because individual linguistic units ma have different content or different connotation and some other features. However, the aim of translation is not to reproduce language means, but to convey information. Simply the carrier of information is the message as the whole. It means, the aim of translation is to reproduce the function of information and not the individual language elements.

Translation is primarily a linguistic operation but not the only one. We have to take into consideration not only the language but attention should be paid also to other facts, such as cultural background or extra linguistic reality.

Concrete examples of individual words show that some items have no straightforward equivalent in other languages; they do not have the same semantic content or emotional charge.

For example these expression:

“in laws” - v slovenčine nemáme len jedno slovo príbuzní, ale viac vzťahov

“kick the bucket” - v slovenčine to musíme brať ako celok - otrčiť kopytá

The translation is possible because we translate the function, the message - not the words, but the whole. Prekladateľ musí poznať celky (frázy) - nemôže prekaldať text po jednom slove.

We translate always the function + the message as a whole.

For example “out of sight, out of mind” = zíde z očí, zíde z mysle

The translation of individual words is sometimes difficult. But if the emphasis is on the communicative aspect of language, there are always some solutions how to deal with individual words. We have to use such means, which express the same information in one language with information in another language even by different means. If the information is the same, the translation is possible.

In conclusion, we may have certain scheme - translation as a certain communication act

               AUTHOR  --------  TEXT 1  --------  TRANSLATOR  --------  TEXT 2  --------  READER

        source language culture        target language culture

        source language tradition        target language tradition

                                      source language norms          target language norms

We can say what and who is present in this communication act:

1. speaker, author, sender
2. message, text - determined by culture (hand), tradition (Good morning till 11.00), norms
3. 1.receiver = translator         - has to understand one language and transform it into another  

        - it is not a common reader

        - produces a new text which is different from the original (diff. language)

        - determined by other text because it is read in a different C, T and N

4. 2.receiver = reader - here translation is a secondary act of communication

Translation is a secondary (derived) form / act of communication. The object of translation is information as a whole. Translation means the same if it fulfils the same function.

Objections against translation

12. can’t find the right equivalent
13. from correspondence problem - when there is no direct correspondence

There is no exact equivalence - for example “cousin” = bratranec, sesternica.

The text depends on culture, tradition and norm.

There is a difference between ordinary receiver and a translator: the translator has to understand a text in one language and reproduce it in another language - he is the receiver and the author.

The second receiver is the reader.

TYPES OF TRANSLATION

From the linguistic point of view we can speak about 3 types of translation:

1. interlingual
2. intralingual
3. intersemiotic

a) Interlingual translation

- it is a reproduction of a text into another language

- only this one is the proper translation in reality

b) Intralingual translation

- it is a paraphrase or a reproduction of a text in different mode, style or genre within the same language

- for example “Canterbury Tales” - translated from Old English into Modern English or into fiction  

c) Intersemiotic translation

- it is a reproduction of verbal signs by means of non-verbal ones and by reverse

- traffic codes, Morse codes, computer language

METHODS OF TRANSLATION

We know several methods of translation:

1. word for word

a) + e) are the extreme ends of the scale

2. literal
3. faithful
4. idiomatic
5. free

a) Word for word translation

- each word is translated by its most common meaning (head = hlava)

- the source language grammar is preserved

- may be used sometimes in pre-translation stage or in some technical texts

b) Literal translation

- also based on the form of the source language

- the words are translated our of contest but the grammar is converted to the nearest target language

 equivalent (he is writing = píše, nie on je píšuci)

- the grammar of the target language is followed

c) Faithful translation

- it follows completely the source language writers intention and text realisation

- it gives the precise contextual meaning of the original

- it transfers all cultural words (I´m going to the pub = do pubu / Coroner = koroner, nie súdny znalec)

- appropriate translation - dnes skôr používané ako termín verný preklad

d) Idiomatic translation

- idiomatic aj vo význame “plynule”

- the source language text is converted into the target language in grammar and in the choice of words

- it sounds naturally as if it were written in the target language

- the translator prefers the usage of idioms even in the cases when they were not used by the author

- dávať prednosť idiomatic pred free

e) Free translation

- it is a paraphrase based on meaning

- the stress is not on the form but only on the meaning, the content

- it is also called sense-for-sense translation  

It is raining cats and dogs.

1. to je pršiace mačky a psy
2. pršia mačky a psy
3. pršia mačky a psy
4. leje ako z krhly
5. veľmi prší

I do not believe that she can lead him up the garden path.

1. ja robiť nie veriť že ona môcť viesť jeho hore ten záhrada chodník
2. ja neverím, že ona môže ho viesť hore záhradným chodníkom
3. ja neverím, že ona môže ho viesť hore záhradným chodníkom
4. neverím, že by ho vodila za nos
5. neverím, že ho mohla podvádzať

EQUIVALENCE

14. it is the relation a source text and a target text express by language means
15. among the basic requirements are:

1. making sense

 in other words we can say:

 meaning, form, style and clarity

2. to convey the spirit and manner of the original
3. having a natural form of expression
4. producing a similar response

The task of a translator is the reproduction of a text in such a way as to preserve its character and influence on the reader, simply to find and appropriate equivalent.

The aim of translation is no to reproduce only language means, gut to convey information.

In different languages we can use different categories or different language means, because language is also a social and cultural phenomenon. The equivalent is determined also culturally and socially.

The choice of equivalent should fulfil grammatical, semantical, lexical, stylistic criteria as well as ester linguistic criteria like the situation, place or who is the receiver.

In general, different types of text or various stages of translation, different units as equivalence are used (even a sound phonem or a whole text)

On the whole we have to know the meaning of individual words, individual grammatical structures. However, the ultimate aim is to achieve equivalence at text level.

EQUIVALENT

- it may be characterised as means of one language which is taker of the same information in another

 language

- that is means or set of means, which reproduce in the target language the information of the source

 language as a whole without any significant change

The equivalence is influenced by a variety of linguistic and cultural factors and is always relative.

The equivalence should be appropriate - sometimes we have to make changes and these changes are called SHIFTS.

SHIFT

- any change between the original text in relation to the new text

- for example “I met a student. She was carrying a bag” = Stretol som študentku.

                     “pedestrian crossing” = prechod pre chodcov

Approximately the same message in the two texts needs to do more changes.

The shift is relatively complex, sometimes we have to make more changes - take in one place, put in another.

If we take something in one place, we have to add something in another place.

She just barge in, about seconds after I spoke to you.

I just thought I’d five you a ring while she’s in the john.

Práve dofrčala (expresívnejšie než v E.), ledva 10 sekúnd (pridané) po tom, čo som s tebou hovoril.

Zišlo mi na um (expresívnejšie), že ti zavolám (neutrálnejšie než v E.), kým je na záchode (neutrálnejšie).

The principle of lost and compensation is to take something somewhere and to add something somewhere else. It is the basic principal of translation and functional shift.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SHIFT

1. subjective (individual)
2. objective
3. constitutive (systematic)
4. positive
5. negative
6. linguistic
7. socio-cultural (thematic)

MOST FREQUENT TYPES OF SHIFTS

a) Constitutive / systematic / linguistic shift - based on different language systems

    time is money = čas sú peniaze

    cast pearls before swine = hádzať perly sviniam

    is he / she / it her? = jet u (bezosobné)

= kniha je na stole

    the book is on the table

    there is a book on the table

    a book is on a table

    here is the news = správy

b) Socio-cultural / cultural shifts - based on different approaches of extra linguistic reality

    fresh water fish = sladkovodná ryba

    carry coals to New Castle = nosiť drevo do lesa / liať vodu do Dunaja

    take French leave = zmiznúť po anglicky (vytratiť sa bez slova)

c) Subjective / individual shifts - the translator uses the equivalent which he or she knows

negative shift  

    General Attorney = procurator

    track record = čo sme všetko dosiahli

    change once heart = zmeniť názor

d) Positive / Negative shift         - they have a subjective character

        - depend on the translator’s knowledge and skills of both languages,

          sociocultural background and translator’s interpretation of the original text

positive shift  

    he is five = má 5 rokov

    red tape = úradný šimel, sivý kôň (staršie) / byrokracia (novšie)

e) Generic shift - when you change the genre, e.g. something translated from poetry to prose

PROBLEMS BY TRANSLATION

If we take translation at a word level, there are some problems which may be caused by:

1. cultural specific concepts

brunch, in-laws

2. different lexical structures of words - they may have different forms

forthnight = 2 týždne

growing old = starnúť (in E. 2 words, in S. 1 word)

3. different semantic structures

minister = kňaz

4. different collocative meaning - meaning comming from combination of words

cut = kosiť, rezať, strihať (different combinations of the same word)

a letter from Peter / London = list od Petra / z Londýna

5. absence of superordinate or specific form

in-laws = in Slovak we don’t have one superordinate word

cousine / kitchen = kuchyňa

DIFFERENCES IN CONNOTATIVE MEANING

1. yellow - in English connected with cowardness
2. Hi, ducks! - in English positive, in Slovak not
3. nam - Vietnam
4. demos - demonstrations
5. jazz - džez
6. Beijing - Peking

1. In Slovak we use more general words
2. There could be a problem about word level
3. We can have culture specific problems (dobrú chuť)
4. Absence of idiomatic equivalents (have green fingers - byž zručný záhradník)
5. Sometimes we have similar counterpart in target language - different or partially different equivalent

(high school - nie vysoká, ale stredná škola)

6. Even content may be partially different (small fish - in England not only people, but also things)
7. Idiom of the same meaning (She is as beautiful as a picture / Not all that glitters is gold)
8. Sometimes we don’t have the same form

(kick the bullet - otrčiť kopytá / once in a blue moon - raz a uhorský rok  we have to paraphrase)

9. Sometimes we have to reword (pedestrian crossing - prechod pre chodcov)
10. Sometimes we translate literary the text and add an extra information

(shouldn’t we be back at St. Peter´s? - do baziliky Sv. Petra…)

TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURE

16. there are many different approaches to this
17. the most frequently used are:

1. Explicitation / amplification

18. it is a shift in which the translator expends the target text by inserting additional words
19. he frequently gives the information which is present implicitly (naznačene, nie priamo vypovedane) and which can be derived from the context

back at St. Peter´s = vrátiť sa k bazilike Sv. Petra (dodanie, spresnenie)

a witty older girl = vtipné a odo mňa staršie dievča

2. Simplification / reduction / omition

20. it is a shift based on omitting some parts of the original text at word level or sentence level caused by the system or individual approach
21. instead of idioms we use collocations or one word

It was a quite charming bistro on the 56th Street on the East Side.

Bolo to tiché bistro na East Side.

3. Modulation

22. it is a shift in cognitive categories
23. expressing the same idea in different words

it may be systematic (bedroom = spálňa) or individual (it´s easy to prove = nie je ťažké to dokázať)

systematic → grandfather clock = stojacie hodiny

individual   → anything worng? = stalo sa niečo?

4. Transposition

24. it is a shift of grammar, in grammatical categories

time is money (Sg.) = čas sú peniaze (Pl.)

he told me to come (Inf.) = povedal mi, aby som prišiel (podmienková spojka)

where do you live? (pomocn= sloveso) = kde bývaš? (skloňovanie)

5. Substitution

25. it is a technique in which a fact in the source language is substituted by a fact with a similar function in the target language
26. for example mile for kilometre / yard for meter - it is a culture specific concept

6. Transference

27. it is a shift in which the translator uses a word or any expression form the source language into the target language
28. when we don’t have such word or from the fashionable way of use - e.g. some English words
29. computer / wow / pub / barbecue - opekanie

7. Transliteration

30. it is a shift of the original sounds or letters
31. coroner - koroner / cowboy - kovboj

That´s very flattering, Em…I mean

preložené do slovenčiny ako “hmmm” - negative shift / v angličtine skratka mena “Emily”

At 47th street and Park, Phil turned and asked - na križovatke 47 ulice a Central Parku

existuje aj Central Park aj Park Street

TYPES OF TEXTS

There can by different texts:  

literary text and literary translation, non-literary text, technical text and translation of technical words.

Between literary and technical text there are journalistic texts (not only newspaper, but also radio & TV) and advertising text.

And within the technical text in broader sense we can find translation of institutional text, administrative text, government pamphlets and legal text.

There can be humanities text (spoločensko-vedné) and science or natural science texts.

What is the basic difference in translation?

A) Technical text

32. we use special kind of text
33. the language is relatively simple but what is difficult is the terminology
34. there must not be an equivalent for the technical terms
35. they are often written in bad style with mistakes, the translator has to correct it
36. we are concentrating on the denotative meaning
37. the vocabulary is not metaphoric, it is more terminological  
38. use of stereotypes, passive sentences

B) Literary text

39. we have to pay attention to the style and connotation
40. we have to pay attention to the metaphoric meaning, to the aesthetic values
41. into literary texts are included:

1. fiction (from fairy tales to novels)
2. poetry (lyrical, epical)
3. drama (comedies, tragedies, farces)  

OTÁZKY ZO ZÁVEREČNÉHO TESTU

1. Name the main branches of translation studies
2. What are two main types of interpreting?
3. What are the problems which can occur by interpreting
4. Characterisation and types of functional shifts
5. What is the difference between intralingual and interlingual translation?
6. Give examples of word-for-word, literary, idiomatic and free translation
7. Name and characterise at least two procedures/techniques of translation
8. Basic characteristic of translation of literary text
9. Basic characteristic of translation of non-literary text
10. Characterize the translation equivalent