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Vypracované otázky na skúšku - didaktika II (Hromníková) (vypracovane_otazky_didaktika_ii[1].doc)

1. Give the basic characteristics of  notions: approach, method, technique according to Richards and Rogers. (R.Repka, D.Brown, prednášky)

Language learning approach refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching.

- theory of language, how the language is presented

- theory of learnig + theory of teaching

- a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning.

An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught….

Language learning method is an overall plan for presenting language material, based on the selected approach; the way of teaching.

It is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural…..Within one approach, there can be many methods….

Methodology in language teaching has been characterized in a variety of ways; methodology is

that which links theory and practice. Theory statements would include theories of what language is and how language is learned or, more specifically, theories of second language acquisition (SLA). Such theories are linked to various design features of language instruction. These design features might include stated objectives, syllabus specifications, types of activities, roles of teachers, learners, materials, and so forth. Design features in turn are linked to actual teaching and learning practices as observed in the environments where language teaching and learning take place. This whole complex of elements defines language teaching methodology.

Language learning technique is a particular strategem or procedure used to accomplish a particular objective

- is implementational – that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.”

1. Describe the nature of approaches and methods in language teaching. History of approaches / 3 views Criteria implemented when characterizing theoretical bases of methods and  aproaches. (prednášky)

The students of today are more likely to find themselves in front of a computer screen rather than a blackboard. As the tools of education change, so too does the nature of learning and the acquisition of knowledge. Learning by drill and memorization is being replaced by more constructive learning methods that teach the student to be more enquiring and analytical. Indeed the new technology is striving to provide the tools which will best facilitate this type of collaborative learning. Thus the traditional classroom structure is changing for both the pupils and the instructors.

Three views on ELT:

a) structural –  (constructivist) views language as a structural system that consists of related elements    

                          that work as codes of meaning. This is the most traditional view

b) functional – language is a vehicle for function, as a means for the expression of functional meaning

c) interactional – sees language as a tool for interpersonal and social interactions between individuals

2. Similarities and differences  of teaching approaches. (R.Repka)

Similarities:

general communicative and objective goals, the implicit role of the culture, techniques

Differencies:

a) role of native language

→ how the native language is applied; divided into:

intralingual strategies – connected with the target language, mothertongue is forbidden, pictures

                                     and objects are used to support teaching (imagination),

                                  – it’s more about memorizing

crosslingual strategies – mother tongue is being used as the language of instruction

                                       (e.g. grammar-translation method) and as the transfer and interferes  

                                       phenomenon (positive/negative asociation)

b) the level of control of the context of the teaching

→ strategy description:

analytic teaching strategy – focus on accuracy

                                         – exercises, drills, audio-lingual method, cognitive approach

experimental strategy – learner centred, message centred, emphasize language in use

                                   – important in message not in the grammar of words

                                   – usage of realistic themes, objects, problems

c) degree of consciousness in the target language learning

explicit approach – rational, conscious, systematic

implicit approach – more irrational

3. What are the basic differences between traditional and modern approaches and  methods.

    Compare the role of teacher , the role of the learner, the role of the mother tonque, teaching grammar,    

    the role of  corrective feedback.

    Compare GTM and audiolingual method.

Traditional approaches were based on the achievement of grammatical competence (ability to produce sentences in a language), language learning = process of mechanical habit formation; errors were to be avoided by memorizing dialogs and performing drills; learning was very much under the control of the teacher. Students relied on the teacher for a model. The teaching of grammar was a deductive one – rules are presented and then practised. PPP cycle – Presentation, Practice, Production.

Modern approaches – how to use language for different purposes and functions, according to different setting and participants; how to produce different types of text and how to maintain communication despite having limitations. Usage of pair work activities, role plays, interaction, teacher is mostly facilitator and monitor.

Grammar-translation method – derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. The method requires students to translate whole texts word for word and memorize numerous grammatical rules and exceptions as well as enormous vocabulary lists. The goal is to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics. Grammar points would come directly from the texts and be presented contextually in the textbook, to be explained elaborately by the instructor. It is largely dependent on the teacher’s skill, rather than on a textbook.

1)  Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.                  2)  Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.                                                        3)  Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and             inflection of words.                                                                                                                 4)  Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.                                                                        5)  Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.  6)  Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.                                                                                                  7)  Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

Audiolingual method – teacher is central and active, provides model, controls direction and pace; learner can produce correct responses but must be directed by skilled training techniques; mother tongue is forbidden; grammatical explanation is avoided; error must be prevented at all costs.

4. What are typical techniques of the traditional approaches and methods: The grammar translation method, the direct method, the audiolingual method .

Grammar translation

1. Translation of a literary text  
2. Reading comprehension questions
3. Antonyms/synonyms  
4. Cognates  
5. Deductive application of rule  
6. Fill-in-the-blanks
7. Memorization  
8. Use words in sentences  
9. Composition  memorizing of dialogs, question and answer practice, substitution drills, guided speaking and writing practice...translation, reading and finding info in a passage, finding antonyms and synonyms, deductive application of rule

Direct method

1. Reading aloud  
2. Question and answer exercise  
3. Getting students to self-correct  
4. Conversation practice  
5. Fill-in-blank exercise  
6. Dictation  
7. Map drawing  
8. Paragraph writing

Audiolingual method – PPP, dialogues and drills, repetition and memorization, pattern practice...

1. Dialog memorization  
2. Repetition drill - students are asked to repeat the teacher’s model as accurately an as quickly as possible.
3. Chain drill - it gets its name from the chain of conversation that forms around the room as students, one-by-one, ask and answer questions of each other. Normally teacher begins the chain.
4. Transformation drill - the teacher gives students a certain kind of sentence and ask them to transform it into negative sentence or question.  
5. Use of minimal pairs  
6. Complete the dialog  
7. Grammar games

5. What are typical techniques of  Community language learning, Suggestopedia, the Silent Way, Total Physical Response, the Natural Approach, the Notional-functional approach. ( Larsen ,Freeman, web )

Community language learning – innovative and conventional activities, translation, group work, recording, transcription, reflection, observation, listening, free conversation

Suggestopedia – initiatives, question and answer, role play, listening exercises under deep relaxation

Silent way – learners responses to commands, questions and visual cues; activities encourage and shape oral responses without grammatical explanantion or modeling by teacher

Total physical response – imperative drills to elicit physical actions

Natural approach – activities allowing comprehensible input, about things in here-and-now; focus on meaning not form

Notional-functional approach - introductions and greetings and discussing interests and hobbies, talking and sharing opinions on themes which can help learner in real-life situations

6. Describe the process of communication (The process of encoding). Different models of communication (The Message model, The Inferential model). (R.Repka)

- communication is characterized by information transfer, processing takes place in communication systems, both the sender and the receiver are actively involved in a communication system, and the quality of communications varies

- code model - the communicator encodes her message by means of a signal that the hearer then decodes. Sentences of a language are just complex signals that encode messages.

- interference - phenomenon in language learning where the first language interferes with learning the target or foreign language

- according to the inferential model an utterance is a piece of evidence of the speaker’s meaning. Decoding the linguistic sentence meaning is seen as just one part of the process of comprehension—a process that relies on both this linguistic meaning and on the context in order to identify the speaker’s meaning. Communicator seeks to fulfill her intention by making it manifest to the hearer.

7. Explain and describe  the model of communicative competence. (R.R.)

CC is a latter capacity to master the rules of sentence formation and being successful in use the language for meaningful communication. It includes knowing how to use language for different purposes and functions; vary the usage of L according to setting and participants; produce different types of texts and maintain communication despite having limitations in language knowledge.

8. Communicative language teaching (CLT) Classic communicative language teaching and  current communicative language teaching- basic characteristics. ( Richards)

The goal of CLT is communicative competence, learner centred, teacher is facilitator and monitor

1. classic CLT 1970-1990s

     - grammar was no longer the starting point; new syllabus types were proposed – skills based,  

        functional, notional, task syllabus; formation of needs analysis, ESP courses, implications for          

        methodology

2. current CLT 1990s till now

- interaction, tasks are opportunities, meaningful communication, holistic process, inductive or  

 discovery learning, analysis and reflection, creative use of language and trial and error, motivations

 for learning, effective learning, teacher as facilitator, collaboration

9. Shortly describe some classroom activities in Communicative language teaching (Richards)

Fluency tasks – natural usage of language, focus on achieving communication (role play)

Accuracy tasks – classroom use of L, focus on formation and correct examples of L (dialogs)

Mechanical practice – repetition drills, substitution drills

Meaningful practice – meaningful choices when carrying out practice

Communicative practice – usage of language within a real communicative context

Information gap activities – communication in order to get info we do not posses

Jig-saw activities – groups have parts of the information needed

OTHER

task-completion, information gathering, opinion-sharing, information-transfer, reasoning gap, role-plays, pair work, group work, push for authenticity

10. Explain 8 major changes in approaches to language learning (Richards)

1. learner autonomy – choice over their own learning; use of small groups
2. social nature of learning – learning is not a private activity
3. curricular integration – English is linked to other subjects in the curriculum
4. focus on meaning – meaning is the driving force of learning
5. diversity – learners learn in different ways with different strengths
6. thinking skills – apply them in situations that go beyond the language classroom
7. alternative assessment – observation, interviews, journals, portfolios
8. teacher as co-learner – teacher is facilitator, he is learning through doing

11. Typical syllabuses of Communicative language Approach. (Richards)

Skills-based – focuses on the four skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking

Functional – organized according to the functions learner should be able to carry out in English

                  – used as a basis for speaking and listening courses

Notional – based around the content and notions a learner would need to express

Task – specified the tasks and activities students should carry out in the classroom

12. Basic principles of Communicative Approach described by R.Repka . (R.R.)

Principles:

1. purposeful principle
2. situational principle
3. principle of authenticity of communicative process
4. principle of subordination of linguistic means to institution of communicative skills
5. principle of evaluation of communicative impact of received or produces language in the relationship with the goals and tasks

13. Explain the meaning of : speech act, types of speech acts    

    http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsASpeechAct.htm

Speech act is an act that a speaker performs when making an utterance, including the following:

1. A general act (illocutionary act) that a speaker performs, analyzable as including the uttering of words (utterance acts), making reference and predicating (propositional acts), and a particular intention in making the utterance (illocutionary force)
2. An act involved in the illocutionary act, including utterance acts and propositional acts
3. The production of a particular effect in the addressee (perlocutionary act)

Illocutionary act is a complete speech act, made in a typical utterance, that consists of the delivery of the propositional content of the utterance (including references and a predicate), and a particular illocutionary force, whereby the speaker asserts, suggests, demands, promises, or vows.

Perlocutionary act is a speech act that produces an effect, intended or not, achieved in an addressee by a speaker’s utterance. Persuading Convincing Scaring Insulting Getting the addressee to do something.

Propositional act is a speech act that a speaker performs when referring or predicating in an utterance.

Utterance act is a speech act that consists of the verbal employment of units of expression such as words and sentences.

14. Task based teaching

Task-based teaching

a) in the TBT instruction the purpose is the functional purpose for which the language will be used  

b) it focuses on real-world tasks  

c) goals are linguistic (greeting people...)

15. Describe in your words what are mechanical, meaningful and communicative activities. (R.R., Brown)

Mechanical practice – repetition drills, substitution drills

                                  – it’s a mechanical activity when we don’t have to understand the language

                                     we are learning necessarily

Meaningful practice – we are required to make meaningful choices when carrying out practice;

Communicative practice – focus is the usage of language within a real communicative context

16. Give arguments for the use of authentic materials in the classroom. (Richards)

1. they provide cultural information about the target language
2. they provide exposure to real language
3. they relate more closely to learner’s needs
4. they support a more creative approach to teaching

17. What is the difference between process based and product based CLT approaches. Give short description of some. (Richards)

Process based approach – divided into:

A) content-based instruction – content is the vehicle which holds the lesson together. Grammar, texts,  

                                                skills and etc. are the starting point in planning the lesson and after these

                                                decisions the content is selected.

B) task-based instruction – language learning will result from creating the right kinds of interactional

                                           processes in the classroom; involves a focus on meaning

                                        – tasks: listing, sorting and ordering, comparing, problem solving,

                                           sharing experience, creative tasks

Product based approach – divided into:

A) text-based instruction – linking spoken and written texts to the cultural context of their use

B) competency-based instruction – seeks to teach the students the basic skills they need in order to

                                                      prepare them for situations they commonly encounter in everyday life.

18. Types of tasks. (Richards, R.R. )

CBI

1. pedagogical tasks
2. require the use of specific interactional strategies, may require specific types of language
3. real-world tasks
4. reflect r-w uses of language, role play to practice job interview

TBI

5. listing (list of things to pack), sorting and ordering (list of importance), comparing
6. problem solving (suggest a solution), sharing experience
7. creative tasks (plans for redecorating a house)

METHODS:

1. grammar-translation
2. direct
3. audio-lingual
4. silent way
5. sugeestopedia
6. total physical response
7. community language learning
8. communicative
9. innovative

SECOND-LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODSPrinciples & Procedures

Jill Kerper Mora, Ed.D.San Diego State University

Below is a description of the basic principles and procedures of the most recognized methods for teaching a second or foreign language.

Grammar-Translation ApproachDirect ApproachReading ApproachAudiolingual MethodCommunity Language LearningThe Silent WayCommunicative Approach--Functional-Notional Total Physical Response
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The Grammar-Translation Approach

This approach was historically used in teaching Greek and Latin. The approach was generalized to teaching modern languages.

Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

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The Direct Approach

This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.

Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures. The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is no translation. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught inductively--rules are generalized from the practice and experience with the target language. Verbs are used first and systematically conjugated only much later after some oral mastery of the target language. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.

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The Reading Approach

This approach is selected for practical and academic reasons. For specific uses of the language in graduate or scientific studies. The approach is for people who do not travel abroad for whom reading is the one usable skill in a foreign language.

The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and second, current and/or historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken. Only the grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught. Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target language. From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in L2, both in and out of class. The vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly controlled for difficulty. Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important that grammatical skill. Translation reappears in this approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to comprehension of the written text.

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The Audiolingual Method

This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach.

New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.

Hints for Using Audio-lingual Drills in L2 Teaching

1. The teacher must be careful to insure that all of the utterances which students will make are actually within the practiced pattern. For example, the use of the AUX verb have should not suddenly switch to have as a main verb.

2. Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possibly so as to insure automaticity and to establish a system.

3. Ignore all but gross errors of pronunciation when drilling for grammar practice.

4. Use of shortcuts to keep the pace o drills at a maximum. Use hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc. to cue response. You are a choir director.

5. Use normal English stress, intonation, and juncture patterns conscientiously.

6. Drill material should always be meaningful. If the content words are not known, teach their meanings.

7. Intersperse short periods of drill (about 10 minutes) with very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue and boredom.

8. Introduce the drill in this way:

a. Focus (by writing on the board, for example)

b. Exemplify (by speaking model sentences)

c. Explain (if a simple grammatical explanation is needed)

d. Drill

9. Don’t stand in one place; move about the room standing next to as many different students as possible to spot check their production. Thus you will know who to give more practice to during individual drilling.

10. Use the "backward buildup" technique for long and/or difficult patterns.

--tomorrow

--in the cafeteria tomorrow

--will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow

--Those boys will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow.

11. Arrange to present drills in the order of increasing complexity of student response. The question is: How much internal organization or decision making must the student do in order to make a response in this drill. Thus: imitation first, single-slot substitution next, then free response last.

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Community Language Learning                                                                                      

Curran, Charles A.:  Counseling-Learning in Second Languages. Apple River, Illinois: Apple River Press, 1976.

This methodology is not based on the usual methods by which languages are taught. Rather the approach is patterned upon counseling techniques and adapted to the peculiar anxiety and threat as well as the personal and language problems a person encounters in the learning of foreign languages. Consequently, the learner is not thought of as a student but as a client. The native instructors of the language are not considered teachers but, rather are trained in counseling skills adapted to their roles as language counselors.

The language-counseling relationship begins with the client's linguistic confusion and conflict. The aim of the language counselor's skill is first to communicate an empathy for the client's threatened inadequate state and to aid him linguistically. Then slowly the teacher-counselor strives to enable him to arrive at his own increasingly independent language adequacy. This process is furthered by the language counselor's ability to establish a warm, understanding, and accepting relationship, thus becoming an "other-language self" for the client. The process involves five stages of adaptation:

STAGE 1

The client is completely dependent on the language counselor.

1. First, he expresses only to the counselor and in English what he wishes to say to the group. Each group member overhears this English exchange but no other members of the group are involved in the interaction.

2. The counselor then reflects these ideas back to the client in the foreign language in a warm, accepting tone, in simple language in phrases of five or six words.

3. The client turns to the group and presents his ideas in the foreign language. He has the counselor's aid if he mispronounces or hesitates on a word or phrase. This is the client's maximum security stage.

STAGE 2

1. Same as above.

2. The client turns and begins to speak the foreign language directly to the group.

3. The counselor aids only as the client hesitates or turns for help. These small independent steps are signs of positive confidence and hope.

STAGE 3

1. The client speaks directly to the group in the foreign language. This presumes that the group has now acquired the ability to understand his simple phrases.

2. Same as 3 above. This presumes the client's greater confidence, independence, and proportionate insight into the relationship of phrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is given only when a group member desires it.

STAGE 4

1. The client is now speaking freely and complexly in the foreign language. Presumes group's understanding.

2. The counselor directly intervenes in grammatical error, mispronunciation, or where aid in complex expression is needed. The client is sufficiently secure to take correction.

STAGE 5

1. Same as stage 4.

2. The counselor intervenes not only to offer correction but to add idioms and more elegant constructions.

3. At this stage the client can become counselor to the group in stages 1, 2, and 3.

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The Silent Way

Caleb Gattegno: Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. New York City: Educational Solutions, 1972.

Procedures

This method begins by using a set of colored rods and verbal commands in order to achieve the following:
To avoid the use of the vernacular. To create simple linguistic situations that remain under the complete control of the teacher To pass on to the learners the responsibility for the utterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions performed. To let the teacher concentrate on what the students say and how they are saying it, drawing their attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of words. To generate a serious game-like situation in which the rules are implicitly agreed upon by giving meaning to the gestures of the teacher and his mime. To permit almost from the start a switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the foreign language to a number of voices using it. This introduces components of pitch, timbre and intensity that will constantly reduce the impact of one voice and hence reduce imitation and encourage personal production of one's own brand of the sounds.

To provide the support of perception and action to the intellectual guess of what the noises mean, thus bring in the arsenal of the usual criteria of experience already developed and automatic in one's use of the mother tongue. To provide a duration of spontaneous speech upon which the teacher and the students can work to obtain a similarity of melody to the one heard, thus providing melodic integrative schemata from the start.

Materials

The complete set of materials utilized as the language learning progresses include: A set of colored wooden rods A set of wall charts containing words of a "functional" vocabulary and some additional ones; a pointer for use with the charts in Visual Dictation A color coded phonic chart(s) Tapes or discs, as required; films Drawings and pictures, and a set of accompanying worksheets Transparencies, three texts, a Book of Stories, worksheets

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Functional-notional Approach

Finocchiaro, M. & Brumfit, C: The Functional-Notional Approach. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1983.

This method of language teaching is categorized along with others under the rubric of a communicative approach. The method stresses a means of organizing a language syllabus. The emphasis is on breaking down the global concept of language into units of analysis in terms of communicative situations in which they are used.

Notions are meaning elements that may be expressed through nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives or adverbs. The use of particular notions depends on three major factors: a. the functions b. the elements in the situation, and c. the topic being discussed.

A situation may affect variations of language such as the use of dialects, the formality or informality of the language and the mode of expression. Situation includes the following elements:

A. The persons taking part in the speech act

B. The place where the conversation occurs

C. The time the speech act is taking place

D. The topic or activity that is being discussed

Exponents are the language utterances or statements that stem from the function, the situation and the topic.

Code is the shared language of a community of speakers.

Code-switching is a change or switch in code during the speech act, which many theorists believe is purposeful behavior to convey bonding, language prestige or other elements of interpersonal relations between the speakers.

Mary Finocchiaro (1983, p. 65-66) has placed the Functional Categories of Language under five headings as noted below: personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, and imaginative.

Personal = Clarifying or arranging one’s ideas; expressing one’s thoughts or feelings: love, joy, pleasure, happiness, surprise, likes, satisfaction, dislikes, disappointment, distress, pain, anger, anguish, fear, anxiety, sorrow, frustration, annoyance at missed opportunities, moral, intellectual and social concerns; and the everyday feelings of hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleepiness, cold, or warmth

Interpersonal = Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships: Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships:

1. greetings and leave takings
2. introducing people to others
3. identifying oneself to others
4. expressing joy at another’s success
5. expressing concern for other people’s welfare
6. extending and accepting invitations
7. refusing invitations politely or making alternative arrangements
8. making appointments for meetings
9. breaking appointments politely and arranging another mutually convenient time
10. apologizing
11. excusing oneself and accepting excuses for not meeting commitments
12. indicating agreement or disagreement
13. interrupting another speaker politely
14. changing an embarrassing subject
15. receiving visitors and paying visits to others
16. offering food or drinks and accepting or declining politely
17. sharing wishes, hopes, desires, problems
18. making promises and committing oneself to some action
19. complimenting someone
20. making excuses
21. expressing and acknowledging gratitude

Directive = Attempting to influence the actions of others; accepting or refusing direction:

1. making suggestions in which the speaker is included
2. making requests; making suggestions
3. refusing to accept a suggestion or a request but offering an alternative
4. persuading someone to change his point of view
5. requesting and granting permission
6. asking for help and responding to a plea for help
7. forbidding someone to do something; issuing a command
8. giving and responding to instructions
9. warning someone
10. discouraging someone from pursuing a course of action
11. establishing guidelines and deadlines for the completion of actions
12. asking for directions or instructions

Referential = talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function: = talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function:

1. identifying items or people in the classroom, the school the home, the community
2. asking for a description of someone or something
3. defining something or a language item or asking for a definition
4. paraphrasing, summarizing, or translating (L1 to L2 or vice versa)
5. explaining or asking for explanations of how something works
6. comparing or contrasting things
7. discussing possibilities, probabilities, or capabilities of doing something
8. requesting or reporting facts about events or actions
9. evaluating the results of an action or event

Imaginative = Discussions involving elements of creativity and artistic expression

1. discussing a poem, a story, a piece of music, a play, a painting, a film, a TV program, etc.
2. expanding ideas suggested by other or by a piece of literature or reading material
3. creating rhymes, poetry, stories or plays
4. recombining familiar dialogs or passages creatively
5. suggesting original beginnings or endings to dialogs or stories
6. solving problems or mysteries

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Total Physical Response

James J. Asher: Learning Another Language Through Actions. San Jose, California: AccuPrint, 1979.

James J. Asher defines the Total Physical Response (TPR) method as one that combines information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system. This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate information and skills at a rapid rate. As a result, this success leads to a high degree of motivation. The basic tenets are:

Understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking. Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information. The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously begin to speak when the student feels comfortable and confident in understanding and producing the utterances.

TECHNIQUE

Step I The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action.

Step 2 The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action.

Step 3 The teacher says the command but only students perform the action

Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands

Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are reversed. S give commands to T and to other S.

Step 6 The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.