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DIDAKTIKA AN I. - poznámky celé (Hromníková) (didaktika_anglickeho_jazyka_i-poznamky.doc)

DIDAKTIKA ANGLICKÉHO JAZYKA I.

Sylaby – na internete (tam je aj zoznam literatúry)

Literatúra:

1. Repka + Halušková – Course in English language didactics
2. Brown – Teaching by principles
3. Penny Ur – A course in language teaching

Hodnotenie:

1. priebežný vedomostný test 22x20 bodov
2. 1 práca/prezentácia (to sa uvidí na hodine)
3. na konci semestra ústna skúška

1. Humanising language teaching (www.hetmag.co.uk)

2. The Teacher Trainer manual (www.tttjournal.co.uk)

3. Teaching Today Magazine

4. Cambridge Journals, Cambridge University Press, 2001

5. Encyclopaedia of Language Teaching and Learning by Michael Byram

 Textbook vocational school – www.statpedu.sk  (Štátny pedagogický ústav)

Didactics of English Teaching Lessons

1. in England = Applied Linguistics

2. it is about the methods of teaching – how to teach

3. the object is to apply English knowledge

1. Language – WHAT do you teach; what is communication; what is language (English)
2. Method – HOW to do that
3. People – WHO are the LEARNERS & TEACHERS, where are they coming from
4. Time – WHEN – AGE – when does the second language take place
5. Environment         – WHERE do you teach – school, institutions

        – the social, political & cultural context

6. Reasons – WHY – the motivation why to learn the second language, the reasons

- there exists Subjective and Objective factors

1. the subjective factors are the persons of teachers and learners
2. the objective factors are the matters of teaching

BASIC TERMINOLOGY

DIDACTICS

4. it has Greek origin – DIDÁSKEIN – to teach, the role of teaching
5. Comenius used Didactica magnae
6. it is the theory of teaching
7. in a wider sense, it is the theory and practical application of teaching and learning
8. general education – theory, teaching of language, specific with English language
9. education → general didactics → didactics of English language
10. in classroom it is connected with the social system
11. teaching → our formal system

Methodology         – it is connected with the word HOW (it is Methodic in Russia)

        – it is the methodics of English language

        – how to teach

Applied Linguistics – was introduced by Widowson in England

Syllabus design         – to describe WHAT, WHY & WHEN is learned

                – it is a selection of themes, topics, linguistic & experimental context

                – in Methodology it is the selection & sequencing of learning tasks

                – it is the grading of linguistic and experimental content

From Longman Dictionary:

Applied Language Methodology or Didactics is the study of the practices,

and procedures used in teaching and the principles and beliefs that underline them.

Such practices, procedures, principles, and beliefs themselves.

One can, for example, criticise or praise the methodology of a particular language course.

Methodology includes:

1. study of the nature of language skills

(reading, writing, speaking, listening and procedures for teaching them)

2. study of the preparation of study materials, lesson plans, materials, and textbooks

for teaching language skills

3. the evaluation and comparison of language teaching methods

(e.g. the audio-lingual method)

4. such practices, procedures and beliefs themselves – classroom techniques, behaviours

Target Language (TL)

12. this refers to the language being learned

English as a Native Language (ENL)

13. this refers to the mother tongue, or the first language that a child learns

English as a Second Language (ESL)

14. this refers to English used by non-native speakers in the environment in which

English is spoken

English as a Foreign Language (EFL)

15. this is the common term for English used mostly by non-native speakers

in the environment in which English is spoken (England, Australia)

16. naturally, such speakers can find themselves living temporarily in a target language community
17. the methodology between ESL and EFL is different

English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

18. this refers to English used explicitly by some speakers for some specific purpose
19. for example, air traffic controllers need English primarily to guide aircraft through the skies
20. it includes to a specific group of people
21. needed for some specific interests – business, economy, technical language, medicine
22. they may not use the language at all apart form this

English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)

23. for example, waiters need English to serve their customers, nurses with the patients
24. these needs are often referred to as EOP
25. to be able to survive in a foreign country
26. specific vocabulary and constructions
27. Europaths – evaluate materials

English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

28. students who intend to study at a university in an English speaking country may need English so that they can write reports or essays and function in seminars
29. this is often called EAP

English for Science and Technology (EST)

30. students of law, medicine, chemistry, architecture – studying in their own countries – may need to be able to read articles and textbook about those subjects in English
31. this is often called EST

Specific interests groups (SIG)

32. e.g. for ……………. teaching

REASONS FOR LEARNING ENGLISH (FOREIGN LANGUAGES)

a)         English is an international language used all over the world

        So for example businessmen use it when they communicate with their partners.

b)        English is in the curriculum of a given type of school, and language learners have to do

        it whether they like it or not. For many of these students English is something they want to

        study. For others, however, the study of this language is something they feel neutral (or

        sometimes negative) about.

c)         Some people want to study English (or another foreign language) because they think it

        offers a chance for advancement in their professional life. In other words, they will get a better

        job. This is the case of some adolescents and adults.

d)         Some people have a specific reason for wanting to learn the language. We have already

        mentioned ESP students.

e)         There are a great number of people who want to study a foreign language for cultural

reasons. They are attracted to the culture of one of the target language communities. They want to know more about the people who speak it, the places where it is spoken and the writings which it has produced, to say nothing of different kinds of music.

f)         There are many other possible reasons for learning a language. Some people do it for

        fun. Some people do it because they want to be tourists in a country where that language is

        spoken. Some students want to learn a foreign language because their friends want to learn it,

        and last but not least there are pupils who select it because their parents want them to do it.

g)        English is the used language for most computer programs – when you want to use a PC.

THE IMPORTANCE OF ENGLISH

English is the most important foreign language and there is a widespread need for it.

The current status of English is usually justified by the following arguments:

a)         It has become an international language, that is, a language that enables

        people who have no common language to communicate.

b)         A great deal of the world's scientific and technological knowledge is written and

        published in English.

c)         It is used by approximately 300 million monolingual speakers in the politically and

        economically important English-speaking countries.

It is the first language for cca. 300 – 380 million people and the second language

for cca. 200 – 600 million people all over the world.

d)         English is spoken not on one but on several continents.

e)         English is the first foreign language taught at school or college all over the world.

f)         English is the language of global media.

THE OBJECT OF THE STUDY OF DIDACTICS

It is necessary to consider a lot of factors and conditions which might have an impact on the teaching/learning process.

Such factors and conditions are usually divided into subjective and objective ones.

1. THE SUBJECTIVE FACTORS

The learner

Who is s/he? How old is s/he? What is his/her native language? What is his/her education? What is his/her socio-economic level? What are his/her intellectual capabilities?                                  What kinds of cognitive strategies and styles does the learner use?                                                  What are his/her previous experiences in foreign language learning?                                           Why does she/he want to study English? What sort of personality does she/he have?

The teacher

33. knowledge of the language
34. pedagogical skills
35. social intelligence
36. communication skills
37. technical skills

What is his/her educational background? What sort of personality does she/he have?               What is his/her socio-economic level? What is his/her mastery of English?                                  What is his/her theoretical level? What are his/her interests?

2. THE OBJECTIVE FACTORS

Objectives (ciele)

38. different according to school
39. pre-school education (feeling of the language, positive attitude, prepare for future learning)
40. adult education (to achieve certain lever, to communicate, to achieve grades)

Do they correspond to actual needs? Which objectives are regarded as most important?                Are they realistic? Are they precisely defined and specified?

The content

41. what we teach, how it is graded

What is its structure? What is its quantity? What is its appropriateness to (what we teach) the age of the learner? How is it modelled in the syllabus? How is it shaped in the textbook?

The method

42. Cullun method
43. linguistics programming
44. chosen with accordance to objectives

What is its theoretical background? How is the method related to the (how we teach) content? Does it correspond to given objectives? Does it correspond to the age of the learner?                           Is it interesting?

Conditions

45. number of students (optimal 15)
46. equipment
47. policy of government  EU language policy
48. documents that show the language policy  European Framework  
49. levels of English are compared A1 – C2

What is the government’s policy in relation to foreign languages? How big or small is the language classroom? How many students are there in one classroom? What sort of equipment does the school have and use? What is the general attitude to foreign languages in different types of schools? How many hours are allocated for the study of a foreign language?

Audio-lingual model: BEHAVIORISM

Theory of language: STRUCTURALISM

It is understandable that both the subjective and objective factors must be integrated into

a theory of foreign or second language acquisition. That theory needs to be coherent and

unified.

Language didactics (or language pedagogy) has a wide theoretical basis. It is composed of

a number of theoretical disciplines which make relevant and proportional contributions to it.

Two questions must be asked: which of the language sciences can be said to have some bearing

on language teaching? What other factors besides the language sciences play a significant part

in language teaching theory? These questions, which can be generalized as the relationship

between theory and practice, have been tackled by many scholars.

Prominent among them are Campbell (1980), Spolsky (1980), Ingram (1980). They, and in fact many others, maintain that linguistics alone is inadequate as a basis for language teaching.

It is evident, for instance, in Spolsky's educational linguistics model:

PSYCHOLOGY

Theory of learning

Theory of language

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

Theory of language learning

SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Theory of language use

Language description

Second language pedagogy

General

linguistics

EDUCATIONAL

LINGUISTICS

practitioner

mediator

theoretician

 Pedagogy

  Linguistic, Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology

 Applied: linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology

A slightly different conception is embodied in

Campbell´s model of the relationship between theory and practice:

Unlike Spolsky, Campbell has included anthropology in his model, but Spolsky has a broader

view of linguistic disciplines. In our opinion, both diagrams give a good idea of the relationship

between theory and practice, even though we could add here other disciplinary cultures, such as

philosophy, logic, history, literature, etc.

APPLIED LINGUISTICS

1. is the branch of linguistics concerned with using linguistic theory to address real-world problems
2. it has been traditionally dominated by the fields of language education

and second language acquisition (SLA)

3. there is a recurrent tension between those who regard the field as limited to study of language learning, and those who see it as encompassing all applications of linguistic theory
4. both definitions are widely used
5. the current field is a cross-disciplinary mix of departments primarily from linguistics, anthropology, psychology and education  

OBJECTIVES (AIMS, GOALS) OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

Objectives are a fundamental didactic category since if we want to teach any school subject, we have to define and specify its objectives first.

Objectives as a didactic category are an expression of the social needs and general abilities of the learner, they are an intersection of social needs (more given by authorities) and personal needs - they reify them, they are only relatively stable and thus they hold good for a given, limited period of time.

As new social and individual needs appear, as the pupil’s intellectual level changes, objectives have to be gradually and dynamically redefined and re-specified.  As a rule, their very hierarchy has to be altered.

The general aim of our educational system is to mould and educate the whole personality of the learner, a harmoniously developed personality, which is of course and ideal we all want to achieve, but which his virtually unattainable.  

In view of what has been said, objectives have to be defined as an internally structured complex, as a system of interrelated components, but not as a set of isolated items.

In relation to English language teaching, we traditionally use a trio of objectives:

communicative, cognitive and formative objectives.

a) Communicative goals –         stem from the communicative function of language. On the whole,                 they determine a proficiency level a learner is supposed to achieve.

b) Cognitive goals        – determine a set of cognitive skills and thought processes such as analogy, induction, deduction, comparison, contrast, hypothesizing, evaluation, etc., which the teacher is to develop through language in the teaching/learning process. These goals are often neglected by teachers, yet they are necessary because we want to shape the whole personality of the

                        learner. The same is true of formative objectives.

c) Formative objectives        – are concerned with the education of good citizens. No society wants

criminals, drug addicts, racially intolerant, morally corrupt, culturally and interculturally insensitive individuals. Hence the teacher should always have in mind that it is his duty to shape, develop and nurture particular ethical, social, and personal qualities in the learner. These objectives are semantically and structurally related to both communicative and cognitive goals. They in fact run across them.

Content classification of objectives is usually supplemented by another classification which is more or less based on 'time segmentation'. Objectives are then subclassified into:

1. long-term – general objectives intended for a definite period of time – for elementary schools,

                         different types of secondary schools, etc,

2. short-term – specified for a semester, a year, a term

3. immediate – set for particular lessons

LEARNERS VARIABLES - TEACHING ACROSS AGE LEVELS

 INTELECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

 ATTENTION SPAM (rozsah pozornosti)

 SENSORY INPUT (zapojenie zmyslov, zmyslové vnímanie)

 AFFECTIVE FACTORS  

 AUTHENTIC, MEANINGFUL LANGUAGE

 INTELECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Content:

3. Teaching children
4. Piaget´s Theory of Cognitive Development
5. Stages of Cognitive Development
6. An evaluation of Piaget´s Theory
7. Vygotsky´s Sociocultural Perspective

Genetic epistemology

50. is the experimental study of the development of knowledge
51. it was developed by Piaget

What is intelligence?

52. according to Piaget, it is a basic life function that enables an organism to adapt to its environment
53. all intellectual activity is undertaken with one goal in mind – COGNITIVE EQUILIBRIUM
54. Piaget described children as constructivists

Cognitive schemes

55. is a term used by Piaget to describe the models, or mental structure, that we create to represent, organize and interpret our experience

56. there are 3 kind of intellectual structure:

1. Behavioural schemes        – first intellectual structures to emerge

        – in concrete situations

– it is an organized pattern of behaviour that the  

  child uses to represent and respond

  to an object or experience

2. Symbolic schemes         – appear in the 2. year of life

        – images

3. Operational schemes – at the age of 7 and higher

How we can gain knowledge – Piaget´s Cognitive Processes

Organization

57. is the process by which children combine existing schemes into new and more complex intellectual structure

Adaptation

58. is an inborn tendency to adjust to the demands of the environment
59. the goal of adaptation is to adjust to the environment – this occurs

       through assimilation and accommodation

Assimilation

60. is the process of interpreting new experiences by incorporating them into existing schemes

Accommodation

- is the process of modifying existing schemes in order to incorporate or adapt to new experiences

PIAGET´S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

- it is possible for children to regressively construct  schemes

Equilibrium                 - toddler (batoľa) who has never seen anything fly but birds think  

             that all flying objects are birds

Assimilation                - seeing an airplane flying prompts the child to call I a birdie

START

Accommodation                - the child experiences conflict upon realizing that the new birdie

             has no feathers, concludes it is not a bird and asks for the proper

                  term or invents a name

                - equilibrium restored

Organization                 - forms hierarchal scheme consisting of a superordinate class

             (flying objects) and two subordinate classes

FINISH              (birdies and airplanes )

PIAGET IDENTIFIED 4 STAGES IN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. Sensorimotor stage (INFANCY)

61. which has 6 substages
62. the intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols
63. knowledge of the world is limited because it is based on physical interactions / experiences
64. children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age
65. physical development  (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities
66. some symbolic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage

2. Pre-operational stage (TODDLER AND EARLY CHILDHOOD)

67. intelligence demonstrated through the use of symbols
68. language use matures
69. memory and imagination are developed
70. thinking is dome in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner
71. egocentric thinking predominates

3. Concrete operational stage (ELEMENTARY AND EARLY ADOLESCENCE)

72. this stage is characterized by 7 types of conservation:

       number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume

73. intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects (to work with concrete things, examples)
74. operational thinking develops = mental actions that are reversible)
75. egocentric thought diminishes

4. Formal operational stage (ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD)

76. intelligence is demonstrated through the logical manipulation of symbols

    related to abstract concepts

77. early in this period there is a return to egocentric thoughts
78. many adults never attain this stage

Piaget´s research methods were based primarily on case studies (they were descriptive).

He believed tat biological development drives the movement form one cognitive stage to the nest.

Some of his theories are criticised while some of his ideas are still influential for parents and educators.

AN EVALUATION OF PIAGET´S THEORY

1. founded the discipline we know today as cognitive development

2. convicted us that children are curious, active explorer who play

          an important role in their own development

3. his theory was one of the 1st to explain, and not jus describe, the process of development

4. his description of period sequences of intellectual development provides a reasonably accurate overview of how children think

CHALLENGES TO PIAGET´S THEORY

1. underestimated developing minds
2. failed to distinguish competence form performance
3. provides a vague explanation on cognitive maturation
4. devoted little attention

VYGOTSKY´S SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE (1920-30s)

The sociocultural theory states that:

79. cognitive development occurs in a sociocultural context that influences the form it takes
80. most of a child’s cognitive skills evolve from social interactions with parents, teachers and other more competent associates

The role of culture in intellectual development:

Vygotsky proposed that we should evaluate human development form 4 interrelated perspectives:

1. Microgenetic – changes that occurs over brief period of time (minutes, seconds)
2. Ontogenetic – development over a lifetime
3. Phylogenetic – development over evolutionary time
4. Sociohistorical – changes that have occurred in one’s culture and the values, norms and  

        technologies such a history has generated

Tools of intellectual adaptation:

Vygotsky (1930/35 – 1978) proposed that infants are born with a few

elementary mental functions (attention, sensation, perception and memory)

These are eventually transformed by the culture into new and more sophisticated mental processes he called HIGHER MENTAL FUNCITONS.

The social origins of Early Cognitive Competence:

Zone of Proximal Development

81. range of tasks that are too complex to be mastered alone but can be accomplished with guidance and encouragement from a more skilful partner

Scaffolding (postaviť lešenie, dať podporu)

82. the expert participant carefully tailors their support to the novice learner to assure their understanding
83. for example by e-learning

Apprenticeship in thinking and guide participation:

Guided participation

84. adult-child interactions in which children’s cognitions and modes of thinking are shaped as they participate with or observe adults engaged in culturally relevant activities

Context independent learning

85. our culture is one that uses what Vygotsky termed context independent learning
86. it is knowledge for knowledge’s sake
87. the adults ask children question that they already know the answer

Implications for education:

88. structure the learning activity
89. promote cooperative learning exercises
90. monitor the learner’s cognition

THE CONTRASTS BETWEEN VYGOTSKY AND PIAGET

 ATTENTION SPAM

Very young learners – pre-school children (5-7)

1. they can talk about what they are doing
2. they can tell you about what they have done or heard
3. they can plan activities
4. they can argue for something
5. they can use logical reasoning
6. they can use their vivid imagination
7. they can understand direct human interaction
8. they can use a wide range of intonation patterns in their mother tongue

Principles of teaching very young learners

1. give children individual attention
2. try to hold their attention – change activities every 5 – 10 minutes
3. use mother tongue in early stages of teaching

(security, need for communication, giving instructions)

4. avoid mother tongue in later communication

(use gestures, English words, inter.English, English hats)

5. the silent period is necessary for absorbing language
6. total physical response – respond is not oral, but by movements

(celková fyzická odpoveď)

AGE - VARIABLE

When we speak about age levels - we have 5 categories:

1. cognitive development
2. attention spam
3. sensory input
4. affective factors
5. authentic, meaningful language

Describe the cognitive development - describe the stages (infancy, toddler,….)

PROFICIENCY - VARIABLE

Proficiency level = variable

91. ACTFL - levels described in textbook (American)
92. we use in our country levels to describe proficiency A1-C2
93. it is achievement in learning skills

1. elementary
2. intermediate
3. pre-intermediate
4. upper-intermediate
5. advanced

94. in EU - Language Portfolio + European Framework of Reference for Languages
95. we use our scales A1-C2
96. there is also the language passport (www.ecml.at)

AUTHENTICITY OF LANGUAGE

A        -        beginning levels

        -         use authentic language (simple greting, introductions)

-        use short simple phrases

-        the repetition is needed

B        -        intermediate levels

        -        usage of real language

        -         not concentrating only on the grammatical details

C        -        advanced levels

        -         usage of academic language

        -        literature, higher conversation

PROFICIENCY LEVEL

Common European framework of reference for language (Wikipedia)

Language passport

Language portfolio

CEFRL        - guideline to describe achievements of learners of foreign languages across EU

                - 6 reference levels:  A - Basic User (Breakthrough, Wastage)

                                          B - Independent User (Threshold, Vantage)

                                          C - Proficient User (Effective operational proficiency, Mastery)

www.euro-paths.net/en/index_en.html

97. to create language models for who is going to work at language levels A1 and A2

Language passport - allows you to describe your language skills, skills that are vital for learning and working in EU.

Portfolio - composed of 3 documents: language passport, language biography, the dossier

               - it is a document in which those who are learning or have learned a language (whether at school

     or outside school) can record their language learning and cultural experiences

www.cilt.org.uk/elp.htm

www.statpedu.sk

MOTIVATION

Defining motivation:

Motivation is the extent to which you make choices about

1. goals to pursue
2. the effort you will devote to that pursuit

Characteristics of motivated learners:

1. Positive task orientation - the learner has confidence in his success,

he is willing to fulfil tasks and challenges  

2. Ego-involvement - it is important for the learner to succeed, to promote his positive self-image

            in order to gain motivation

3. Need for achievement - to overcome difficulties
4. High aspiration - learners are ambitious, they want top grades
5. Goal orientation - some concrete goal, which the learner wants to achieve, we are aware of

goals of the learning

6. Perseverance - progress, determination
7. Tolerance of ambiguity - learner is not disturb or frustrated by situations by temporary luck of

 confidence, he has confidence that understanding will come later

Theories of motivation:

1.) Behaviouristic definition

98. the role of rewards in motivation behaviour, they perceive a goal because they will be rewarded
99. rewards: marks, praise (gold stars), certificates, diplomas, scholarships, curriers
100. M&N theory - anticipation of reinforcement = MOTIVATION
101. reinforcement: money (from parents) - such behaviour is addicted

2.) Cognitive definition

A) DRIVE THEORY

- drives are fundamental to human behaviour

- motivation stams from basic innate drives (innate predispositions) - according to D.Ausubel

1. Exploration - explore something unknown, e.g. show picture - is not the best way

     - we should show where the animals live and students should think about it more

2. Manipulation
3. Activity - to be physically active
4. Stimulation - to be receptive (mental, physical), other senses can  be involved - listening
5. Knowledge
6. Ego enhancement - to build our self esteem

- we would live to explore things, to control our environment, to be physically receptive,  

 mental and physical stimulation

- knowledge - predisposition to ask, to answer

b) hierarchy of needs theory

        - according to Abraham Maslow

        - pyramid of needs, progressing from the satisfaction of purely physical needs up through safety          

             and communal needs, to needs of esteem and finally to self actualization

 (a state of reaching the fullest potential )

1. Biological and physiological need - air, food, drink, shelter, sex, sleep
2. Safety needs - protection, laws, limits, stability
3. Belongingness and love needs - friends, family, work group, relationships
4. Esteem needs - achievement, status, responsibility, reputation
5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, memory, meaning, self-awareness
6. Aesthetic needs - beauty, balance, form
7. Self actualization - personal growth, self fulfilment needs
8. Transcendence - helping others to self actualize

c) self control theory

- importance of people deciding for themselves what to think or feel or do

- motivation is highest when one can make one’s choice

- choice of mark - the schoolmates can influence the marks, choose of topis

1. what students want to do first - which exercise
2. how would they like to do it - speaking or writing
3. whether they want to do some exercises in the class or at home
4. choice of opinions
5. evaluation - involve pierce t evaluate classmates, choice of marks, influence on giving marks
6. choice of topics by learner

Different kinds of motivation:

 INTEGRATIVE        - the desire to identify with and integrate into the target - language culture

                        - among learners of French in Canada

 INSTRUMENTAL        - the wish to learn the language for purposes of study or career promotion

                        - Gardener and Lambert, 1972

 INTRINSIC                - the urge to engage into the learning activity for its own sake (cognitive drive)

 EXTRINSIC        - motivation is derived from external incentives (awards - marks)

 GLOBAL MOTIVATION        - the overall orientation of the learner towards the learning of the foreign

 language

- here the teacher can motivate

- previous education

 SITUATIONAL MOTIVATION         - context if of the learning (classroom, total environment)

                                        - to make it more attractive (maps, pictures)

 TASK MOTIVATION        - the way the learner approaches the specific task in hand

                                - encourage students to do some tasks

Extrinsic motivation:

102. sources affected by teacher’s  action

1. Success and its rewards - praise of the teacher, expression of the teacher, to make sure that

       learners are aware of it

2. Failure and its penalties - not taking care
3. Authoritative demands - teacher pressure - it has lowering effects
4. Tests - they will be tested - study carefully
5. Competition - individual - can’t be stressful

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivation in education:

103. intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparent reward except activity self
104. extrinsic motivated activities - here is the anticipation of rewards  

1. Jean Piaget pointed out that human beings view incongruity, uncertainly and disequilibrium as motivating
2. Krahsen - optimal incongruity = i+1  comprehensive input - you doesn’t understand everything but you can guess from the context , the challenge is motivating
3. Maslow - claimed that intrinsic motivation is clearly superior to extrinsic
4. Jerome Bruner - the theory “autonomy of self-reward “ - to free them from control of rewards and punishments
5. Intrinsic behaviour - Maria Montessori, Rudolf Steiner, Paolo Freire, Carlo Rogers

Intrinsic motivation and interests:

105. ways of arousing interests in tasks
106. games, entertainment

1. Clear goals - describe objective of task=explain (guessing game)
2. Varied topics and tasks
3. Visuals
4. Tension and challenge - games (fun)
5. Entertainment
6. Play acting - role-play, imagination
7. Information gap-activity - to find out what is in the picture
8. Personalization
9. open - ended clues (contribute)

topics and situation

107. this is infinite
108. topics = family / situation = visiting friends
109. language segmented into: sounds, vocabulary, grammatical structures
110. in books there are larger segments - whole chunks of discourse = organized around a common topic
111. topics integrated into some kind of communicative event - situations (describing your home, family)
112. T&S are more difficult to learn than e.g. vocabulary

NOTION AND FUNCTION

113. this is finite
114. it is a concept or an idea
115. it is more precise

NOTION - it may be quite specific - in which case it is the same as vocabulary

           - or it may be very general - in which case it often overlaps with the concept of “topic” (time, size)

FUNCTION - some kind of communicative act

                - it is the use of language to achieve a purpose,

       - usually involving interaction between at least 2 people

       - e.g. promising, apologizing, greeting

binary functions

- the performance of ONE implies a certain response or set of responses which take the form                                        

 of ANOTHER complementary function

EXAMPLES - offer - acceptance or rejection

                 - request - positive or negative response

                 - instruction

                 - apology

FUNCTIONS        - offer, request, promise, advise, threat, instruction, apology